grimm has said that “superstition in all its multifariousness constitutes a species of religion applicable to all the common household necessities of daily life;”[33] and if we view it as such, particular forms of superstition may very well serve as guide to the character and habits of the particular nation in which they are prevalent. in transylvania, however, the task of classifying all the superstitions that come under our notice is a peculiarly hard one, for perhaps nowhere else does this curious crooked plant of delusion flourish so persistently and in such bewildering variety as in the land beyond the forest; and it would almost seem as though the whole species of demons, pixies, witches, and hobgoblins, driven from the rest of europe by the wand of science, had taken refuge within this mountain rampart, aware that here they would find secure lurking-places whence to defy their persecutors yet a while.

there are many reasons why such fabulous beings should retain an abnormally firm hold on the soil of these parts, and looking at the matter closely, we find no less than three distinct sources of superstition:

first, there is what may be called the indigenous superstition of the country, the scenery of which is particularly adapted to serve as background to all sorts of supernatural beings. there are innumerable caverns whose depths seem made to harbor whole legions of evil spirits; forest glades, fit only for fairy folk on moonlight nights; solitary lakes, which instinctively call up visions of water-sprites; golden treasures lying hidden in mountain chasms—all of which things have gradually insinuated themselves into the minds of the oldest inhabitants, the roumanians, so that these people, by nature imaginative and poetically inclined, have built up for themselves, out of the surrounding{189} materials, a whole code of fanciful superstition, to which they adhere as closely as to their religion itself.

secondly, there is here the imported superstition—that is to say, the old german customs and beliefs brought hither by the saxon colonists from their native land, and, like many other things, preserved here in greater perfection than in the original country.

thirdly, there is the influence of the wandering superstition of the gypsy tribes, themselves a race of fortune-tellers and witches, whose ambulatory caravans cover the country as with a net-work, and whose less vagrant members fill up the suburbs of towns and villages.

all these kinds of superstition have twined and intermingled, acted and reacted upon each other, so that in many cases it becomes a difficult matter to determine the exact parentage of some particular belief or custom; but in a general way the three sources i have named may be admitted as a rough sort of classification in dealing with the principal superstitions here afloat.

few races offer such an interesting field for research in their folk-lore as the roumanians, in whose traditions we find side by side elements of celtic, slav, and roman mythology—a subject well worth a closer attention than it has hitherto received. the existence of the celtic element has been explained by the assumption (believed by many historians to be well founded), that as the present roumanians are a mixed race originating in the fusion of romans with dacians, so were these latter themselves a complex nationality composed of slav and celtic ingredients.

the spirit of evil—or, not to put too fine a point on it, the devil—plays a conspicuous part in the roumanian code of superstition, and such designations as gaura draculuj[34] (devil’s hole), gregyna draculuj (devil’s garden), jadu draculuj (devil’s abyss), frequently found attached to rocks, caverns, and heights, attest that these people believe themselves to be surrounded on all sides by whole legions of evil spirits. these devils are furthermore assisted by ismejus (another sort of dragon), witches, and goblins, and to each of these dangerous beings are ascribed particular powers on particular days and{190} at certain places. many and curious are therefore the means by which the roumanians endeavor to counteract these baleful influences; and a whole complicated study, about as laborious as the mastering of an unknown language, is required in order to teach an unfortunate peasant to steer clear of the dangers by which he supposes himself to be beset on all sides. the bringing up of a common domestic cow is apparently as difficult a task as the rearing of any “dear gazelle,” and even the well-doing of a simple turnip or potato about as precarious as that of the most tender exotic plant.

of the seven days of the week, wednesday (miercuri) and friday (vinere) are considered suspicious days, on which it is not allowed to use needle or scissors, or to bake bread; neither is it wise to sow flax on these days. no bargain should ever be concluded on a friday; and venus (here called paraschiva), to whom the friday is sacred, punishes all infractions of this rule by causing conflagrations.

tuesday, however—or marti, named from mars, the bloody god of war—is a decidedly unlucky day, on which spinning is utterly prohibited; and even such seemingly harmless actions as washing the hands and combing the hair are not unattended by danger. about sunset on tuesday the evil spirit of that day is at its fullest force, and many people refrain from leaving their huts between sunset and midnight. “may the mar sara (spirit of tuesday evening) carry you off!” is here equivalent to saying, “may the devil take you!”

it must not, however, be supposed that monday, thursday, and saturday are unconditionally lucky days, on which the roumanian is at liberty to do as he pleases. thus every well-informed roumanian matron knows that she may wash on thursday and spin on saturday, but that it would be a fatal mistake to reverse the order of these proceedings; and though thursday is a lucky day for marriage,[35] and is on that account mostly chosen for weddings, it is proportionately unfavorable to agriculture. in many places it is considered unsafe to work in the fields on all thursdays between easter and pentecost, for it is believed that if these days be not kept as days of rest, ravaging hail-storms will be the inevitable consequence. many of the more enlightened roumanian popas have preached in vain against this belief; and some years ago the inhabitants of a village presented an{191} official complaint to the bishop, requesting the removal of their popa, on the ground that he not only gave scandal by working on the prohibited days, but had actually caused them serious material damage by the hail-storms his sinful behavior had provoked. this respect of the thursday would seem to be the result of a deeply rooted, though now unconscious, worship of jupiter (joi), who gives his name to the day.

to different hours of the day are likewise ascribed different influences, favorable or the reverse. thus it is always considered unlucky to look at one’s self in the mirror after sunset; neither is it wise to sweep dust over the threshold in the evening, or to restore a whip borrowed of a neighbor. the exact hour of noon is precarious, because of the evil spirit pripolniza;[36] and so is midnight, because of the miase nopte (night spirit); and it is safer to remain in-doors at these hours. if, however, some misguided peasant does happen to leave his home at midnight, and espies (as very likely he may) a flaming dragon in the sky, he need not necessarily give himself up as lost, for if he have the presence of mind to stick a fork into the ground alongside of him, the fiery monster will thereby be prevented from carrying him off.

the advent of the new moon is always more or less fraught with danger, and nothing may be sown or planted at that time.

the oriental church has an abnormal number of feast-days, to each of which peculiar customs and superstitions are attached, a few of which may here find place.

on new-year’s day it is customary for the roumanian to interrogate his fate by placing a leaf of evergreen on the freshly swept and heated hearth-stone. if the leaf takes a gyratory movement, he will be lucky; but if it shrivels up where it lies, then he may expect misfortune during the coming year.[37] to insure the welfare of the cattle, it is advisable to place a gold or silver piece in the water-trough out of which they drink for the first time on new-year’s morning.

the feast of the epiphany, or three kings (tre crai), is one of the oldest festivals, and was solemnized by the oriental church as{192} early as the second century. on this day, which popular belief regards as the coldest in the winter, the blessing of the waters, known as the feast of the jordan or bobetasu (baptism), takes place. the priests, attired in full vestments, proceed to the shore of the nearest river or lake, and there bless the waters, which have been unclosed by cutting a greek cross, some six to eight feet long, in the ice. every pious roumanian is careful to fill a bottle with this consecrated water before the surface freezes over again, and keeps it tightly corked and sealed up, as a remedy in case of illness. on this day the principal food in most roumanian houses consists of a sort of jelly; and in the evening the popa, coming to each house in order to bless the cattle, which he does by sprinkling holy-water with a bunch of wild basil-weed,[38] finds a table with food and drink awaiting him, from which a dish of boiled plums must never be wanting.

he who dies on that day is considered particularly lucky, for he will be sure to go straight to heaven, the gate of which is believed to stand open all day, in memory of the descent of the holy ghost at the baptism of christ.

the feast of st. theodore, january 11th (corresponding to our 23d of january), is a day of rest for the girls, those transgressing this rule being liable to be carried off by the saint, who sometimes appears in the shape of a beautiful youth, sometimes in that of a terrible monster. no decent girl should leave her house unescorted on this day, for fear of the terrible theodore.[39] in some districts youths and maidens choose this day for swearing friendship, which bonds are inaugurated by a tree being hung over with little circular cakes, and danced round with songs and music, after which each cake is broken in two and divided between a youth and a maiden.[40]

on the wednesday in holy week the easter loaves and cakes are baked, which next day are blessed, and some of the hallowed crumbs mixed up with the cows’ fodder. woe to the woman who indulges in a nap to-day; for the whole year she will not be able to shake off her drowsiness. in the evening the young men bind as many wreaths as{193} there are persons in their family, and each of these, marked with the name of an individual, is thrown up on the roof, the wreaths which fall to the ground indicating those who will die that year.

skin diseases are cured by taking a bath on good friday in a stream or river which flows towards the east. this will not only cure the patient, but prevent the disease recurring within the year.[41]

in the night preceding easter sunday witches and demons are abroad, and hidden treasures are said to betray their site by a glowing flame. no god-fearing peasant will, however, allow himself to be tempted by the hope of such riches, which he cannot on that day appropriate without sin. he must not omit to attend the midnight church-service, and his devotion will be rewarded by the mystic qualities attached to the wax candle he has carried in his hand, and which, when lighted hereafter during a thunder-storm, will keep the lightning from striking his house.

the greatest luck which can befall a mortal is to be born on easter sunday, and this luck is increased if the birth take place at mid-day when the bells are ringing; but it is not lucky to die on that day.

egg-shells are glued up against the doors in memory of the israelites, who anointed the door-posts with the lambs’ blood at their flight from egypt; and the wooden spoon with which the easter eggs have been removed from the boiling pot is carefully treasured up by each shepherd, for, worn in his belt, it gives him the power to distinguish the witches who seek to molest his flocks. witches may also be descried by the man who on easter monday takes up his stand on a bridge above running water, remaining there from sunrise to sunset.

perhaps the most important day in the roumanian’s year is that of st. george, april 24th (may 6th), the eve of which is said to be still frequently kept up by occult meetings taking place at night in lonely caverns or within ruined walls, and where all the ceremonies usual to the celebration of a witches’ sabbath are put into practice. this night is the great one to beware of witches, to counteract whose influence square-cut blocks of turf (to which are sometimes added thorny branches) are placed in front of each door and window.[42] this is supposed effectually to bar their entrance to house or stables; but for still greater precaution it is usual for the peasants to keep watch all night{194} near the sleeping cattle. this same night is likewise the best one for seeking treasures.

the feast of st. george, being the day when most flocks are first driven out to pasture, is in a special manner the feast of all shepherds and cow-herds, and on this day only is it allowed for the roumanian shepherd to count his flocks and assure himself of the exact number of sheep—these numbers being, in general, but approximately guessed at and vaguely described. thus, when interrogated as to the number of his master’s sheep, the roumanian shepherd will probably inform you that they are as numerous as the stars of heaven, or as the daisies which dot the meadows.

the custom of throwing up wreaths on to the roof, as described above, is in some districts practised on the feast of st. john the baptist, june 24th (july 6th), instead of on the wednesday in holy week. this is the day when the sun, having reached its zenith, begins its backward course (according to the people) with a trembling, dancing movement, in the same way as the sun is said to dance on easter sunday. the gate-way of each house is decorated with a wreath of field-flowers; and at night fires lighted on the mountain heights are supposed to keep away evil spirits from the flocks. this custom of the st. john fires is, however, to be found in many other countries, and is undoubtedly a remnant of the old sun-worship practised by greeks, romans, scandinavians, celts, slavs, indians, parsees, etc.

the feast of st. elias, july 20th (august 1st), is a very unlucky day, on which the lightning may be expected to strike.[43] every year—so we are told in an ancient legend—st. elias appears in heaven before the throne of the almighty, and humbly inquires when his feast-day is to be. he is invariably put off with divers excuses, being sometimes told that his feast-day has not yet come, sometimes that the date for it is already past. at this the saint grows angry, and wishing to punish the human race for thus forgetting him, he hurls down his thunderbolts upon the earth.

the feast of st. spiridion, december 13th (january 24th), is an ominous day, especially for housewives; and this saint often destroys those who desecrate his feast by manual labor.

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that the cattle are endowed with speech during the christmas night is a general belief, but it is not considered wise to pry upon them, or try to overhear what they say, as the listener will rarely overhear any good. this night is likewise favorable to the discovery of hidden treasures, and the man who has courage to conjure up the evil one will be sure to see him if he call upon him at midnight. three burning coals placed on the threshold will prevent the devil from carrying him off.

a round cake baked at christmas goes by the name of the rota (wheel), and is probably symbolic of the sun’s rotation.

the girl whose thoughts are turned towards love and matrimony has many approved methods of testing her fate on the new-year’s night. first of all, she may, by cracking her finger-joints, accurately ascertain the number of her admirers; also a fresh-laid egg broken into a glass of water will give much clew to the events in store for her by the shape it assumes; and a swine’s bristle stuck in a straw and thrown on the heated hearth-stone is reliable as a talisman which disperses love or jealousy.[44] to form a conjecture as to the figure and build of her future husband, she is recommended to throw an armful of firewood as far as she can backward over her shoulder; the piece which has gone farthest will be the image of her intended, according as the stick happens to be long or short, broad or slender, straight or crooked.

another such game is to place on the table a row of earthen pots upside down. under each of these is concealed something different—as corn, salt, wool, coals, or money—and the girl is desired to make her choice; thus money stands for a rich husband, and wool for an old one; corn signifies an agriculturist, and salt connubial happiness; but coals are prophetic of misfortune.

if these general indications do not suffice, and the maiden desire to see the reflection of her bridegroom’s face in the water, she has only to step naked at midnight into the nearest lake or river; or if she not unnaturally shrink from this chilly oracle, let her take her stand on the more congenial dunghill, with a piece of christmas cake in her mouth, and, as the clock strikes twelve, listen attentively for the first sound of a dog’s bark which reaches her ear. from whichever side it proceeds will also come the expected suitor.

it is likewise on the last day of the year that the agriculturist seeks a prognostic of the weather for the coming year, by making what is called the onion calendar, which consists in putting salt into twelve hollowed-out onions and giving to each the name of a month. those onions in which the salt has melted by the following morning will be rainy months.