reply to objections

in a work which perhaps inevitably contains much controversial matter, it has seemed best to consign to an appendix the answers to objections against the method advocated. by this means the attention is less directed from the matter in hand, the exposition of the method itself. we have announced our belief that a certain element in mythology is derived from the mental condition of savages. to this it is replied, with perfect truth, that there are savages and savages; that a vast number of shades of culture and of nascent or retrograding civilisation exist among the races to whom the term “savage” is commonly applied. this is not only true, but its truth is part of the very gist of our theory. it is our contention that myth is sensibly affected by the varieties of culture which prevail among so-called savage tribes, as they approach to or decline from the higher state of barbarism. the anthropologist is, or ought to be, the last man to lump all savages together, as if they were all on the same level of culture.

when we speak of “the savage mental condition,” we mean the mental condition of all uncultivated races who still fail to draw any marked line between man and the animate or inanimate things in the world, and who explain physical phenomena on a vague theory, more or less consciously held, that all nature is animated and endowed with human attributes. this state of mind is nowhere absolutely extinct; it prevails, to a limited extent, among untutored european peasantry, and among the children of the educated classes. but this intellectual condition is most marked and most powerful among the races which ascend from the condition of the australian murri and the bushmen, up to the comparatively advanced maoris of new zealand and algonkins or zunis of north america. these are the sorts of people who, for our present purpose, must be succinctly described as still in the savage condition of the imagination.

again, it is constantly objected to our method that we have no knowledge of the past of races at present in the savage status. “the savage are as old as the civilised races, and can as little be named primitive,” writes dr. fairbairn.1 mr. max müller complains with justice of authors who “speak of the savage of to-day as if he had only just been sent into the world, forgetting that, as a living species, he is probably not a day younger than ourselves”.2 but mr. max müller has himself admitted all we want, namely, that savages or nomads represent an earlier stage of culture than even the ancient sanskrit-speaking aryans, this follows from the learned writer’s assertion that savage tongues, kaffir and so forth, are still in the childhood which hebrew and the most ancient sanskrit had long left behind them.3 “we see in them” (savage languages) “what we can no longer expect to see even in the most ancient sanskrit or hebrew. we watch the childhood of language with all its childish pranks.” these “pranks” are the result of the very habits of savage thought which we regard as earlier than “the most ancient sanskrit”.

thus mr. max müller has admitted all that we need — admitted that savage language (and therefore, in his view, savage thought) is of an earlier stratum than, for example, the language of the vedas. no more valuable concession could be made by a learned opponent.

objections of an opposite character, however, are pushed, along with the statement that we have no knowledge of the past of savages. savages were not always what they are now; they may have degenerated from a higher condition; their present myths may be the corruption of something purer and better; above all, savages are not primitive.

all this contention, whatever its weight, does not affect the thesis of the present argument. it is quite true that we know nothing directly of the condition, let us say, of the australian tribes a thousand years ago except that it has left absolutely no material traces of higher culture. but neither do we know anything directly about the condition of the indo-european peoples five hundred years before philology fancies that she gets her earliest glimpse of them. we must take people as we find them, and must not place too much trust in our attempts to reconstruct their “dark backward”. as to the past of savages, it is admitted by most anthropologists that certain tribes have probably seen better days. the fuegians and the bushmen and the digger indians were probably driven by stronger races out of seats comparatively happy and habits comparatively settled into their present homes and their present makeshift wretchedness.4

but while degeneration is admitted as an element in history, there seems no tangible reason for believing that the highest state which bushmen, fuegians, or diggers ever attained, and from which they can be thought to have fallen, was higher than a rather more comfortable savagery. there are ups and downs in savage as in civilised life, and perhaps “crowned races may degrade,” but we have no evidence to show that the ancestors of the diggers or the fuegians were a “crowned race”. their descent has not been comparatively a very deep one; their presumed former height was not very high. as mr. tylor observes, “so far as history is to be our criterion, progression is primary and degradation secondary; culture must be gained before it can be lost”. one thing about the past of savages we do know: it must have been a long past, and there must have been a period in it when the savage had even less of what aristotle calls [greek] even less of the equipment and provision necessary for a noble life than he possesses at present. his past must have been long, because great length of time is required for the evolution of his exceedingly complex customs, such as his marriage laws and his minute etiquette. mr. herbert spencer has deduced from the multiplicity, elaborateness and wide diffusion of australian marriage laws the inference that the australians were once more civilised than they are now, and had once a kind of central government and police. but to reason thus is to fail back on the old greek theory which for every traditional custom imagined an early legislative hero, with a genius for devising laws, and with power to secure their being obeyed. the more generally accepted view of modern science is that law and custom are things slowly evolved under stress of human circumstances. it is certain that the usual process is from the extreme complexity of savage to the clear simplicity of civilised rules of forbidden degrees. wherever we see an advancing civilisation, we see that it does not put on new, complex and incomprehensible regulations, but that it rather sloughs off the old, complex and incomprehensible regulations bequeathed to it by savagery.

this process is especially manifest in the laws of forbidden degrees in marriage — laws whose complexity among the australians or north american indians “might puzzle a mathematician,” and whose simplicity in a civilised country seems transparent even to a child. but while the elaborateness and stringency of savage customary law point to a more, and not a less barbarous past, they also indicate a past of untold duration. somewhere in that past also it is evident that the savage must have been even worse off materially than he is at present. even now he can light a fire; he has a bow, or a boomerang, or a blowpipe, and has attained very considerable skill in using his own rough tools of flint and his weapons tipped with quartz. now man was certainly not born in the possession of fire; he did not come into the world with a bow or a boomerang in his hand, nor with an instinct which taught him to barb his fishing-hooks. these implements he had to learn to make and use, and till he had learned to use them and make them his condition must necessarily have been more destitute of material equipment than that of any races known to us historically. thus all that can be inferred about the past of savages is that it was of vast duration, and that at one period man was more materially destitute, and so far more struggling and forlorn, than the murri of australia were when first discovered by europeans. even then certain races may have had intellectual powers and potentialities beyond those of other races. perhaps the first fathers of the white peoples of the north started with better brains and bodies than the first fathers of the veddahs of ceylon; but they all started naked, tool-less, fire-less. the only way of avoiding these conclusions is to hold-that men, or some favoured races of man, were created with civilised instincts and habits of thought, and were miraculously provided with the first necessaries of life, or were miraculously instructed to produce them without passing through slow stages of experiment, invention and modification. but we might as well assume, with some early biblical commentators, that the naked adam in paradise was miraculously clothed in a vesture of refulgent light. against such beliefs we have only to say that they are without direct historical confirmation of any kind.

but if, for the sake of argument, we admit the belief that primitive man was miraculously endowed, and was placed at once in a stage of simple and happy civilisation, our thesis still remains unaffected. dr. fairbairn’s saying has been quoted, “the savage are as old as the civilised races, and can as little be called primitive”. but we do not wish to call savages primitive. we have already said that savages have a far-stretching unknown history behind them, and that (except on the supposition of miraculous enlightenment followed by degradation) their past must have been engaged in slowly evolving their rude arts, their strange beliefs and their elaborate customs. undeniably there is nothing “primitive” in a man who can use a boomerang, and who must assign each separate joint of the kangaroo he kills to a separate member of his family circle, while to some of those members he is forbidden by law to speak. men were not born into the world with all these notions. the lowest savage has sought out or inherited many inventions, and cannot be called “primitive”. but it never was part of our argument that savages are primitive. our argument does not find it necessary to claim savagery as the state from which all men set forth. about what was “primitive,” as we have no historical information on the topic, we express no opinion at all. man may, if any one likes to think so, have appeared on earth in a state of perfection, and may have degenerated from that condition. some such opinion, that purity and reasonableness are “nearer the beginning” than absurdity and unreasonableness, appears to be held by mr. max müller, who remarks, “i simply say that in the veda we have a nearer approach to a beginning, and an intelligible beginning, than in the wild invocations of hottentots or bushmen”.5

would mr. müller add, “i simply say that in the arts and political society of the vedic age we have a nearer approach to a beginning than in the arts and society of hottentots and bushmen”? is the use of chariots, horses, ships — are kings, walled cities, agriculture, the art of weaving, and so forth, all familiar to the vedic poets, nearer the beginning of man’s civilisation than the life of the naked or skin-clad hunter who has not yet learned to work the metals, who acknowledges no king, and has no certain abiding-place? if not, why is the religion of the civilised man nearer the beginning than that of the man who is not civilised? we have already seen that, in mr. max muller’s opinion, his language is much farther from the beginning.

whatever the primitive condition of man may have been, it is certain that savagery was a stage through which he and his institutions have passed, or from which he has copiously borrowed. he may have degenerated from perfection, or from a humble kind of harmless simplicity, into savagery. he may have risen into savagery from a purely animal condition. but however this may have been, modern savages are at present in the savage condition, and the ancestors of the civilised races passed through or borrowed from a similar savage condition. as mr. tylor says, “it is not necessary to inquire how the savage state first came to be upon the earth. it is enough that, by some means or other, it has actually come into existence.”6 it is a stage through which all societies have passed, or (if that be contested) a condition of things from which all societies have borrowed. this view of the case has been well put by m. darmesteter.7

he is speaking of the history of religion. “if savages do not represent religion in its germ, if they do not exemplify that vague and indefinite thing conventionally styled ‘primitive religion,’ at least they represent a stage through which all religions have passed. the proof is that a very little research into civilised religions discovers a most striking similarity between the most essential elements of the civilised and the non-historic creeds.” proofs of this have been given when we examined the myths of greece.

we have next to criticise the attempts which have been made to discredit the evidence on which we rely for our knowledge of the intellectual constitution of the savage, and of his religious ideas and his myths and legends. if that evidence be valueless, our whole theory is founded on the sand.

the difficulties in the way of obtaining trustworthy information about the ideas, myths and mental processes of savages are not only proclaimed by opponents of the anthropological method, but are frankly acknowledged by anthropologists themselves. the task is laborious and delicate, but not impossible. anthropology has, at all events, the advantage of studying an actual undeniably existing state of things, to sift the evidence as to that state of things, to examine the opportunities, the discretion, and the honesty of the witnesses, is part of the business of anthropology. a science which was founded on an uncritical acceptance of all the reports of missionaries, travellers, traders, and “beach-combers,” would be worth nothing. but, as will be shown, anthropology is fortunate in the possession of a touchstone, “like that,” as theocritus says, “wherewith the money-changers try gold, lest perchance base metal pass for true”.

the “difficulties which beset travellers and missionaries in their description of the religious and intellectual life of savages” have been catalogued by mr. max muller. as he is not likely to have omitted anything which tells against the evidence of missionaries and travellers, we may adopt his statement in an abridged shape, with criticisms, and with additional illustrations of our own.8

first, “few men are quite proof against the fluctuations of public opinion”. thus, in rousseau’s time, many travellers saw savages with the eyes rousseau — that is, as models of a simple “state of nature”. in the same way, we may add, modern educated travellers are apt to see savages in the light cast on them by mr. tylor or sir john lubbock. mr. im thurn, in guiana, sees with mr. tylor’s eyes; messrs. fison and howitt, among the kamilaroi in australia, see with the eyes of mr. lewis morgan, author of systems of consanguinity. very well; we must allow for the bias in each case. but what are we to say when the travellers who lived long before begnard report precisely the same facts of savage life as the witty frenchman who wrote that “next to the ape, the laplander is the animal nearest to man”? what are we to say when the mariner, or beach-comber, or indian interpreter, who never heard of rousseau, brings from canada or the marquesas islands a report of ideas or customs which the trained anthropologist finds in new guinea or the admiralty islands, and with which the inca, garcilasso de la vega, was familiar in peru? if the wesleyan missionary in south africa is in the same tale with the jesuit in paraguay or in china, while the lutheran in kamtschatka brings the same intelligence as that which they contribute, and all three are supported by the shipwrecked mariner in tonga and by the squatter in queensland, as well as by the evidence, from ancient times and lands, of strabo, diodorus and pausanias, what then? is it not clear that if pagan greeks, jesuits and wesleyans, squatters and anthropologists, indian interpreters and the fathers of the christian church, are all agreed in finding this idea or that practice in their own times and countries, their evidence is at least unaffected by “the fluctuations of public opinion”? this criterion of undesigned coincidence in evidence drawn from protestants, catholics, pagans, sceptics, from times classical, mediaeval and modern, from men learned and unlearned, is the touchstone of anthropology. it will be admitted that the consentient testimony of persons in every stage of belief and prejudice, of ignorance and learning, cannot agree, as it does agree, by virtue of some “fluctuation of public opinion”. it is to be regretted that, in mr. max muller’s description of the difficulties which beset the study of savage religious ideas, he entirely omits to mention, on the other side, the corroboration which is derived from the undesigned coincidence of independent testimony. this point is so important that it may be well to quote mr. tylor’s statement of the value of the anthropological criterion:—

it is a matter worthy of consideration that the accounts of similar phenomena of culture, recurring in different parts of the world, actually supply incidental proof of their own authenticity. some years since a question which brings out this point was put to me by a great historian, “how can a statement as to customs, myths, beliefs, etc., of a savage tribe be treated as evidence where it depends on the testimony of some traveller or missionary who may be a superficial observer, more or less ignorant of the native language, a careless retailer of unsifted talk, a man prejudiced, or even wilfully deceitful?” this question is, indeed, one which every ethnographer ought to keep clearly and constantly before his mind. of course he is bound to use his best judgment as to the trustworthiness of all authors he quotes, and if possible to obtain several accounts to certify each point in each locality. but it is over and above these measures of precaution that the test of recurrence comes in. if two independent visitors to different countries, say a mediaeval mohammedan in tartary and a modern englishman in dahomey, or a jesuit missionary in brazil and a wesleyan in the fiji islands, agree in describing some analogous art, or rite, or myth among the people they have visited, it becomes difficult or impossible to set down such correspondence to accident or wilful fraud. a story by a bushranger in australia may perhaps be objected to as a mistake or an invention; but did a methodist minister in guinea conspire with him to cheat the public by telling the same story there? the possibility of intentional or unintentional mystification is often barred by such a state of things as that a similar statement is made in two remote lands by two witnesses, of whom a lived a century before b, and b appears never to have heard of a. how distant are the countries, how wide apart the dates, how different the creeds and characters of the observers in the catalogue of facts of civilisation, needs no farther showing to any one who will even glance at the footnotes of the present work. and the more odd the statement, the less likely that several people in several places should have made it wrongly. this being so, it seems reasonable to judge that the statements are in the main truly given, and that their close and regular coincidence is due to the cropping up of similar facts in various districts of culture. now the most important facts of ethnography are vouched for in this way. experience leads the student after a while to expect and find that the phenomena of culture, as resulting from widely-acting similar causes, should recur again and again in the world. he even mistrusts isolated statements to which he knows of no parallel elsewhere, and waits for their genuineness to be shown by corresponding accounts from the other side of the earth or the other end of history. so strong indeed is the means of authentication, that the ethnographer in his library may sometimes presume to decide not only whether a particular explorer is a shrewd and honest observer, but also whether what he reports is conformable to the general rules of civilisation. non quia, sed quid.

it must be added, as a rider to mr. tylo^s remarks, that anthropology is rapidly making the accumulation of fresh and trustworthy evidence more difficult than ever. travellers and missionaries have begun to read anthropological books, and their evidence is therefore much more likely to be biassed now by anthropological theories than it was of old. when mr. m’lennan wrote on “totems” in 1869,9 he was able to say, “it is some compensation for the completeness of the accounts that we can thoroughly trust them, as the totem has not till now got itself mixed up with speculations, and accordingly the observers have been unbiassed. but as anthropology is now more widely studied, the naif evidence of ignorance and of surprise grows more and more difficult to obtain.”

we may now assert that, though the evidence of each separate witness may be influenced by fluctuations of opinion, yet the consensus of their testimony, when they are unanimous, remains unshaken. the same argument applies to the private inclination, and prejudice, and method of inquiry of each individual observer.

travellers in general, and missionaries in particular, are biassed in several distinct ways. the missionary is sometimes anxious to prove that religion can only come by revelation, and that certain tribes, having received no revelation, have no religion or religious myths at all. sometimes the missionary, on the other hand, is anxious to demonstrate that the myths of his heathen flock are a corrupted version of the biblical narrative. in the former case he neglects the study of savage myths; in the latter he unconsciously accommodates what he hears to what he calls “the truth”. in modern days the missionary often sees with the eyes of mr. herbert spencer. the traveller who is not a missionary may either have the same prejudices, or he may be a sceptic about revealed religion. in the latter case he is perhaps unconsciously moved to put burlesque versions of biblical stories into the mouths of his native informants, or to represent the savages as ridiculing (dr. moffat found that they did ridicule) the scriptural traditions which he communicates to them. yet again we must remember that the leading questions of a european inquirer may furnish a savage with a thread on which to string answers which the questions themselves have suggested. “have you ever had a great flood?” “yes.” “was any one saved?” the leading question starts the invention of the savage on a deluge-myth, of which, perhaps, the idea has never before entered his mind.

the last is a source of error pointed out by mr. codrington:10

“the questions of the european are a thread on which the ideas of the native precipitate themselves”. now, as european inquirers are prone to ask much the same questions, a people which, like some celts and savages, “always answers yes,” will everywhere give much the same answers. mr. romilly, in his book on the western pacific,11 remarks, “in some parts of new britain, if a stranger were to ask, ‘are there men with tails in the mountains?’ he would probably be answered ‘yes,’ that being the answer which the new briton” (and the north briton, too, very often) “would imagine was expected of him, and would be most likely to give satisfaction. the train of thought in his mind would be something like this, ‘he must know that there are no such men, but he cannot have asked so foolish a question without an object, and therefore he wishes me to say ‘yes!’ of course the first ‘yes’ leads to many others, and in a very short time everything is known about these tailed men, and a full account of them is sent home.”

what is true of tailed men applies to native answers about myths and customs when the questions are asked by persons who have not won the confidence of the people nor discovered their real beliefs by long and patient observation. this must be borne in mind when missionaries tell us that savages believe in one supreme deity, in a mediator, and the like, and it must be borne in mind when they tell us that savages have no supreme being at all. always we must be wary! a very pleasing example of inconsistency in reports about the same race may be found in a comparison of the account of the khonds in the thirteenth volume of the royal asiatic society with the account given by general campbell in his personal narrative, the inquirer in the former case did not know the khond language, and trusted to interpreters, who were later expelled from the public service. general campbell, on the other hand, believed himself to possess “the confidence of the priests and chiefs,” and his description is quite different. in cases of contradictions like these, the anthropologist will do well to leave the subject alone, unless he has very strong reasons for believing one or other of the contending witnesses.

we have now considered the objections that may be urged against the bias of witnesses.

mr. max müller founds another objection on “the absence of recognised authorities among savages”.12 this absence of authority is not always complete; the maoris, for example, have traditional hymns of great authority and antiquity. there are often sacred songs and customs (preserved by the red indians in chants recorded by picture-writing on birch bark), and there always is some teaching from the mothers to their children, or in the mysteries. all these, but, above all, the almost immutable sacredness of custom, are sources of evidence. but, of course, the story of one savage informant may differ widely from that of his neighbour. the first may be the black sheep of the tribe, the next may be the saint of the district. “both would be considered by european travellers as unimpeachable authorities with regard to their religion.” this is too strongly stated. even the inquiring squatter will repose more confidence in the reports about his religion of a black with a decent character, or of a black who has only recently mixed with white men, than in those of a rum-bibbing loafer about up-country stations or a black professional bowler on a colonial cricket-ground. our best evidence is from linguists who have been initiated into the secret mysteries. still more will missionaries and scholars like bleek, hahn, codrington, castren, gill, callaway, theal, and the rest, sift and compare the evidence of the most trustworthy native informants. the merits of the travellers we have named as observers and scholars are freely acknowledged by mr. max müller himself. to their statements, also, we can apply the criterion: does bleek’s report from the bushmen and hottentots confirm castren’s from the finns? does codrington in melanesia tell the same tale as gill in mangia or theal among the kaffirs? are all confirmed by charlevoix, and lafitau, and brebeuf, the old catholic apostles of the north american indians? if this be so, then we may presume that the inquirers have managed to extract true accounts from some of their native informants. the object of the inquiry, of course, is to find out, not what a few more educated and noble members of a tribe may think, nor what some original speculative thinker among a lower race may have worked out for himself, but to ascertain the general character of the ideas most popular and most widely prevalent among backward peoples.

a third objection is that the priests of savage tribes are not unimpeachable authorities. it is pointed out that even christian clergy have their differences of opinion. naturally we expect most shades of opinion where there is most knowledge and most liberty, but the liberty of savage heterodoxy is very wide indeed. we might almost say that (as in the mythology of greece) there is no orthodox mythical doctrine among savages. but, amidst minor diversities, we have found many ideas which are universal both in savage and civilised myths. quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus. it is on this universal element of faith, not on the discrepancies of local priests, that we must fix our attention. many a different town in greece showed the birthplace or tomb of this or that deity. the essential point is that all agreed in declaring that the god was born or died.

once more — and this is a point of some importance when we are told that priests differ from each other in their statements — we must remember that these very differences are practically universal in all mythology, even in that of civilised races. thus, if one savage authority declares that men came originally out of trees, while his fellow-tribesman avers that the human race was created out of clay, and a third witness maintains that his first ancestors emerged from a hole in the ground, and a fourth stands to it that his stock is descended from a swan or a serpent, and a fifth holds that humanity was evolved from other animal forms, these savage statements appear contradictory. but when we find (as we do) precisely the same sort of contradictions everywhere recurring among civilised peoples, in greece, india, egypt, as well as in africa, america and australia, there seems no longer any reason to distrust the various versions of the myth which are given by various priests or chiefs. each witness is only telling the legend which he has heard and prefers, and it is precisely the coexistence of all these separate monstrous beliefs which makes the enigma and the attraction of mythology. in short, the discrepancies of savage myths are not an argument against the authenticity of our information on the topic, because the discrepancies themselves are repeated in civilised myth. semper et ubique, et ab omnibus. to object to the presence of discrepant accounts is to object to mythology for being mythological.

another objection is derived from the “unwillingness of savages to talk about religion,” and from the difficulty of understanding them when they do talk of it. this hardly applies when europeans are initiated into savage mysteries. we may add a fair example of the difficulty of learning about alien religions. it is given by garcilasso de la vega, son of an inca princess, and a companion of pizarro.13”

the method that our spaniards adopted in writing their histories was to ask the indians in spanish touching the things they wanted to find out from them. these, from not having a clear knowledge of ancient things, or from bad memories, told them wrong, or mixed up poetical fables with their replies. and the worst of it was that neither party had more than a very imperfect knowledge of the language of the other, so as to understand the inquiry and to reply to it. . . . in this great confusion, the priest or layman who asked the questions placed the meaning to them which was nearest to the desired answer, or which was most like what the indian was understood to have said. thus they interpreted according to their pleasure or prejudice, and wrote things down as truths which the indians never dreamt of. as an example of these comparisons, garcilasso gives the discovery of the doctrine of the trinity among the people of peru. a so-called icona was found answering to the father, a son (racab) and a holy spirit (estrua); nor was the virgin lacking, nor even st. anne. “all these things are fictions of the spaniards.” but no sooner has garcilasso rebuked the spaniards and their method, than he hastens to illustrate by his own example another difficulty that besets us in our search for evidence of myths. he says, as if it were a matter of certain fact, that tlasolteute, a kind of priapus, god of lust, and ometoctilti, god of drunkenness, and the god of murder, and the others, “were the names of men and women whom the natives of that land worshipped as gods and goddesses”. thus garcilasso euhemerises audaciously, as also does sahagun in his account of mexican religion. we have no right to assume that gods of natural departments (any more than dionysus and priapus and ares) had once been real men and were deified, on evidence like the statement of garcilassp. he is giving his own euhemeristic guess as if it were matter of fact, and this is a common custom with even the more intelligent of the early missionaries.

another example of the natural difficulty in studying the myths of savages may be taken from mr. sproat’s scenes of savage life (1868). there is an honesty and candour in mr. sproat’s work which by itself seems to clear this witness, at least, of charges of haste or prejudice. the religion of savages, says this inquirer, “is a subject as to which a traveller might easily form erroneous opinions, owing to the practical difficulty, even to one skilled in the language, of ascertaining the true nature of their superstitions. this short chapter is the result of more than four years’ inquiry, made unremittingly, under favourable circumstances. there is a constant temptation, from which the unbiassed observer cannot be quite free, to fill up in one’s mind, without proper material, the gap between what is known of the religion of the natives for certain, and the larger less-known portion, which can only be guessed at; and i frequently found that, under this temptation, i was led on to form, in my own mind, a connected whole, designed to coincide with some ingenious theory which i might wish to be true. generally speaking, it is necessary, i think, to view with suspicion any very regular account given by travellers of the religion of savages.” (yet we have seen the absence of “regularity,” the differences of opinion among priests, objected to by mr. max müller as a proof of the untrustworthy nature of our evidence.) “the real religious notions of savages cannot be separated from the vague and unformed, as well as bestial and grotesque, mythology with which they are intermixed. the faint struggling efforts of our natures in so early or so little advanced a stage of moral and intellectual cultivation can produce only a medley of opinions and beliefs, not to be dignified by the epithet religious, which are held loosely by the people themselves, and are neither very easily discovered nor explained.” when we came to civilised mythologies, we found that they also are “bestial and grotesque,” “loosely held,” and a “medley of opinions and beliefs “.

mr. sproat was “two years among the ahts, with his mind constantly directed to the subject of their religious beliefs,” before he could discover that they had any such beliefs at all. traders assured him that they had none. he found that the ahts were “fond of mystification” and of “sells”; and, in short, this inquirer, living with the ahts like an aht, discounted every sort of circumstance which could invalidate his statement of their myths.14

now, when we find mr. codrington taking the same precautions in melanesia, and when his account of melanesian myths reads like a close copy of mr. sproat’s account of aht legends, and when both are corroborated by the collections of bleek, and hahn, and gill, and castren, and eink, in far distant corners of the world, while the modern testimony of these scholarly men is in harmony with that of the old jesuit missionaries, and of untaught adventurers who have lived for many years with savages, surely it will be admitted that the difficulty of ascertaining savage opinion has been, to a great extent, overcome. if all the evidence be wrong, the coincidences of the witnesses with each other and of the savage myths they report with the myths of greeks and aryans of india will be no less than a miracle.

we have now examined the objections urged against a system founded on the comparative study of savage myths. it cannot be said of us (as it has been said of de brosses), that “whatever we find in the voyages of sailors and traders is welcome to us; that we have a theory to defend, and whatever seems to support it is sure to be true”. our evidence is based, to a very great extent, on the communications of missionaries who are acknowledged to be scholarly and sober men. it is confirmed by other evidence, catholic, dissenting, pagan, scientific, and by the reports of illiterate men, unbiassed by science, and little biassed by religion.

but we have not yet exhausted our evidence, nor had recourse to our ultimate criterion. that evidence, that criterion, is derived from the study of comparative institutions, of comparative ritual, of comparative law, and of comparative customs. in the widely diffused rites and institutions which express themselves in actual practice we have sure evidence for the ideas on which the customs are founded. for example, if a man pays away his wampum, or his yams, or his arrow-heads to a magician for professional services, it follows that he does believe in magic. if he puts to death a tribesman for the sin of marrying a woman to whom he was only akin by virtue of common descent from the same beast or plant, it seems to follow that he does believe in descent from and kinship with plants and beasts. if he buries food and valuable weapons with his dead, it follows that he does, or that his fathers did, believe in the continued life of the dead. at the very least, in all three cases the man is acting on what must once have been actual beliefs, even if the consequent practices be still in force only through custom, after the real faith has dwindled away. thus the belief, past or present, in certain opinions can be deduced from actual practices, just as we may deduce from our own coronation service the fact that oil, anointed on a man’s head by a priest, was once believed to have a mysterious efficacy, or the fact that a certain rough block of red sand-stone was once supposed to have some kind of sacredness. of all these sources of evidence, none is more valuable than the testimony of ritual. a moment’s reflection will show that ritual, among any people, wild or civilised, is not a thing easily altered. if we take the savage, his ritual consists mainly of the magical rites by which he hopes to constrain his gods to answer his prayers, though he may also “reveal” to the neophyte “our father”. if we examine the greeks, we discover the same element in such rites as the attic thesmophoria, the torch-dance of demeter, the rainmaking on the arcadian mount lyc?us, with many other examples. meanwhile the old heathen ritual survives in europe as rural folklore, and we can thus display a chain of evidence, from savage magic to greek ritual, with the folklore of germany, france, eussia and scotland for the link between these and our own time. this is almost our best evidence for the ancient idea about gods and their service. from the evidence of institutions, then, the evidence of reports may be supplemented. “the direct testimony,” as m. darmesteter says, “heureusement peut-etre supplee par le temoignage indirect, celui qui porte sur les usages, les coutumes, l’ordre exterieur de la vie,” everything that shows us religious faith embodied in action. now these actions, also, are only attested by the reports of travellers, missionaries and historians. but it is comparatively easy to describe correctly what is done, much more easy than to discover what is thought. yet it will be found that the direct evidence of institutions corroborates the less direct evidence as to thought and opinion. thus an uncommonly strong texture of testimony is woven by the coincidence of evidence, direct and indirect, ancient and modern, of learned and unlearned men, of catholics, protestants, pagans and sceptics. what can be said against that evidence we have heard. we have examined the objections based on “the influence of public opinion on travellers,” on “the absence of recognised authorities among savages,” on the discrepancies of the authorities who are recognised, on the “unwillingness of savages to talk of their religion,” and on the difficulty of understanding them when they do talk of it.

but after allowing for all these drawbacks (as every anthropologist worthy of the name will, in each case, allow), we have shown that there does remain a body of coincident evidence, of authority, now learned and critical, now uncritical and unlearned, which cannot be set aside as “extremely untrustworthy”. this authority is accepted in questions of the evolution of art, politics, handicraft; why not in questions of religion? it is usually evidence given by men who did not see its tendency or know its value. a chance word in the veda shows us that a savage point of marriage etiquette was known to the poet. a sneer of theophrastus, a denunciation of ezekiel, an anecdote of herodotus, reveal to us the practices of contemporary savages as they existed thousands of years ago among races savage or civilised. a traveller’s tale of melville or mandeville proves to be no mere “yarn,” but completes the evidence for the existence in asia or the marquesas islands of belief and rites proved to occur in europe or india.

such is the nature of the evidence for savage ideas, and for their survivals in civilisation; and the amount of the evidence is best known to him who has to plod through tracts, histories and missionary reports.