among deities for whom an origin has been sought in the personification of elemental phenomena, athene is remarkable. perhaps no divine figure has caused more diverse speculations. the study of her legend is rather valuable for the varieties of opinion which it illustrates than for any real contribution to actual knowledge which it supplies. we can discover little, if anything, about the rise and development of the conception of athene. her local myths and local sacra seem, on the whole, less barbaric than those of many other olympians. but in comparing the conjectures of the learned, one lesson comes out with astonishing clearness. it is most perilous, as this comparison demonstrates, to guess at an origin of any god in natural phenomena, and then to explain the details of the god’s legend with exclusive reference to that fancied elemental origin.
as usual, the oldest literary references to athene are found in the iliad and odyssey. it were superfluous to collect and compare texts so numerous and so familiar. athene appears in the iliad as a martial maiden, daughter of zeus, and, apparently, of zeus alone without female mate.195
she is the patron of valour and the inspirer of counsel; she arrests the hand of achilles when his sword is half drawn from the sheath in his quarrel with agamemnon; she is the constant companion and protector of odysseus; and though she is worshipped in the citadel of troy, she is constant to the cause of the ach?ans. occasionally it is recorded of her that she assumed the shape of various birds; a sea-bird and a swallow are among her metamorphoses; and she could put on the form of any man she pleased; for example, of deiphobus.196 it has often been observed that among the lower races the gods habitually appear in the form of animals. “entre ces facultes qui possedent les immortels, l’une des plus frappantes est celle de se metamorphoser, de prendre des apparences non seulement animales, mais encore de se transformer en objets inanimes.”197 of this faculty, inherited from the savage stage of thought, athene has her due share even in homer. but in almost every other respect she is free from the heritage of barbarism, and might very well be regarded as the ideal representative of wisdom, valour and manfulness in man, of purity, courage and nobility in woman, as in the ph?acian maid nausic?.
in hesiod, as has already been shown, the myth of the birth of athene retains the old barbaric stamp. it is the peculiarity of the hesiodic poems to preserve the very features of religious narrative which homer disregards. according to hesiod, zeus, the youngest child of child-swallowing cronus, married metis after he had conquered and expelled his father. now metis, like other gods and goddesses, had the power of transforming herself into any shape she pleased. her husband learned that her child — for she was pregnant — would be greater than its father, as in the case of the child of thetis. zeus, therefore, persuaded metis to transform herself into a fly. no sooner was the metamorphosis complete than he swallowed the fly, and himself produced the child of metis out of his head.198 the later philosophers explained this myth199 by a variety of metaphysical interpretations, in which the god is said to contain the all in himself, and again to reproduce it. any such ideas must have been alien to the inventors of a tale which, as we have shown, possesses many counterparts among the lowest and least platonic races.200 c. o. müller remarks plausibly that “the figure of the swallowing is employed in imitation of still older legends,” such as those of africa and australia. this leaves him free to imagine a philosophic explanation of the myth based on the word metis.201 we may agree with müller that the “swallow-myth” is extremely archaic in character, as it is so common among the backward races. as to the precise amount, however, of philosophic reflection and allegory which was present to the cosmogonic poet’s mind when he used metis as the name of the being who could become a fly, and so be swallowed by her husband, it is impossible to speak with confidence. very probably the poet meant to read a moral and speculative meaning into a barbaric m?rchen surviving in religious tradition.
to the birth of athene from her father’s head savage parallels are not lacking. in the legends of the south pacific, especially of mangaia, tangaroa is fabled to have been born from the head of papa.202
in the vafthrudismal (31) a maid and a man-child are born from under the armpits of a primeval gigantic being. the remarks of lucian on miraculous birth have already been quoted.203
with this mythical birth for a starting-point, and relying on their private interpretations of the cognomina of the goddess, of her sacra, and of her actions in other parts of her legend, the modern mythologists have built up their various theories. athene is now the personification of wisdom, now the dawn, now the air or aether, now the lightning as it leaps from the thunder-cloud; and if she has not been recognised as the moon, it is not for lack of opportunity.204 these explanations rest on the habit of twisting each detail of a divine legend into conformity with aspects of certain natural and elemental forces, or they rely on etymological conjecture. for example, welcker205 maintains that athene is “a feminine personification of the upper air, daughter of zeus, the dweller in ?ther”. her name tritogenia is derived206 from an ancient word for water, which, like fire, has its source in ?ther.207 welcker presses the title of the goddess, “glaucopis,” the “grey-green-eyed,” into the service. the heaven in attica oft ebenfalls wunderbar grun ist.208
moreover, there was a temple at methone of athene of the winds (anemotis), which would be a better argument had there not been also temples of athene of the pathway, athene of the ivy, athene of the crag, athene of the market-place, athene of the trumpet, and so forth. moreover, the olive tree is one of the sacred plants of athene. now why should this be? clearly, thinks welcker, because olive-oil gives light from a lamp, and light also comes from ?ther.209 athene also gives telemachus a fair wind in the odyssey, and though any lapland witch could do as much, this goes down to her account as a goddess of the air.210
leaving welcker, who has many equally plausible proofs to give, and turning to mr. max müller, we learn that athene was the dawn. this theory is founded on the belief that athene = ahana, which mr. max müller regards as a sanskrit word for dawn. “phonetically there is not one word to be said against, ahana = athene, and that the morning light offers the best starting-point for the later growth of athene has been proved, i believe, beyond the reach of doubt, or even of cavil.” mr. müller adds that “nothing really important could be brought forward against my equation ahana = athene”.
it is no part of our province here to decide between the conjectures of rival etymologists, nor to pronounce on their relative merits. but the world cannot be expected to be convinced by philological scholars before they have convinced each other. mr. max müller had not convinced benfey, who offered another etymology of athene, as the feminine of the zend thr?tana athwyana, an etymology of which mr. müller remarks that “whoever will take the trouble to examine its phonetic foundation will be obliged in common honesty to confess that it is untenable”.211 meanwhile curtius212 is neither for ahana and sanskrit and mr. max müller, nor for benfey and zend. he derives athene from the root aio, whence perhaps comes athene, the blooming one” = the maiden. preller, again,213 finds the source of the name athene in aio, whence aion, “the air,” or a flower”. he does not regard these etymologies as certain, though he agrees with welcker that athene is the clear height of ?ther.
manifestly no one can be expected to accept as matter of faith an etymological solution which is rejected by philologists. the more fashionable theory for the moment is that maintained some time since by lauer and schwartz, and now by furtwangler in roscher’s lexikon, that athene is the “cloud-goddess,” or the goddess of the lightning as it springs from the clouds.214 as the lightning in mythology is often a serpent, and as athene had her sacred serpent, “which might be erichthonios,”215
schwartz conjectures that the serpent is the lightning and athene the cloud. a long list of equally cogent reasons for identifying athene with the lightning and the thunder-cloud has been compiled by furtwangler, and deserves some attention. the passage excellently illustrates the error of taking poetic details in authors as late as pindar for survivals of the absolute original form of an elemental myth.
furtwangler finds the proof of his opinion that athene is originally the goddess of the thunder-cloud and the lightning that leaps from it in the olympic ode.216 “by hephaistos’ handicraft beneath the bronze-wrought axe from the crown of her father’s head athene leapt to light, and cried aloud an exceeding cry, and heaven trembled at her coming, and earth, the mother.” the “cry” she gave is the thunderpeal; the spear she carried is the lightning; the ?gis or goat-skin she wore is the cloud again, though the cloud has just been the head of zeus.217 another proof of athene’s connection with storm is the miracle she works when she sets a flame to fly from the head of diomede or of achilles,218 or fleets from the sky like a meteor.219 her possession, on certain coins, of the thunderbolts of zeus is another argument. again, as the trumpet-athene she is connected with the thunder-peal, though it seems more rational to account for her supposed invention of a military instrument by the mere fact that she is a warlike goddess. but furtwangler explains her martial attributes as those of a thunder-goddess, while preller finds it just as easy to explain her moral character as goddess of wisdom by her elemental character as goddess, not at all of the cloud, but of the clear sky.220
“lastly, as goddess of the heavenly clearness, she is also goddess of spiritual clearness.” again, “as goddess of the cloudless heaven, she is also goddess of health”,221 there could be no more instructive examples of the levity of conjecture than these, in which two scholars interpret a myth with equal ease and freedom, though they start from diametrically opposite conceptions. let athene be lightning and cloud, and all is plain to furtwangler. let athene be cloudless sky, and preller finds no difficulties. athene as the goddess of woman’s work as well as of man’s, athene ergane, becomes clear to furtwangler as he thinks of the fleecy clouds. probably the storm-goddess, when she is not thundering, is regarded as weaving the fleeces of the upper air. hence the myth that arachne was once a woman, changed by athene into a spider because she contended with her in spinning.222
the metamorphosis of arachne is merely one of the half-playful aetiological myths of which we have seen examples all over the world. the spider, like the swallow, the nightingale, the dolphin, the frog, was once a human being, metamorphosed by an angry deity. as preller makes athene goddess of wisdom because she is goddess of clearness in the sky, so furtwangler derives her intellectual attributes from her skill in weaving clouds. it is tedious and unprofitable to examine these and similar exercises of facile ingenuity. there is no proof that athene was ever a nature-goddess at all, and if she was, there is nothing to show what was her department of nature. when we meet her in homer, she is patroness of moral and physical excellence in man and woman. manly virtue she typifies in her martial aspect, the armed and warlike maid of zeus; womanly excellence she protects in her capacity of ergane, the toiler. she is the companion and guardian of perseus no less than of odysseus.223
the sacred animals of athene were the owl, the snake (which accompanies her effigy in athens, and is a form of her foster-child erechtheus), the cock,224 and the crow.225 probably she had some connection with the goat, which might not be sacrificed in her fane on the acropolis, where she was settled by ?geus (“goat-man “?). she wears the goat-skin, ?gis, in art, but this is usually regarded as another type of the storm-cloud.226
athene’s maiden character is stainless in story, despite the brutal love of hephaestus. this characteristic perhaps is another proof that she neither was in her origin nor became in men’s minds one of the amorous deities of natural phenomena. in any case, it is well to maintain a sceptical attitude towards explanations of her myth, which only agree in the determination to make athene a “nature power” at all costs, and which differ destructively from each other as to whether she was dawn, storm, or clear heaven. where opinions are so radically divided and so slenderly supported, suspension of belief is natural and necessary.
no polytheism is likely to be without a goddess of love, and love is the chief, if not the original, department of aphrodite in the greek olympus. in the iliad and odyssey and the homeric hymn she is already the queen of desire, with the beauty and the softness of the laughter-loving dame. her cestus or girdle holds all the magic of passion, and is borrowed even by hera when she wishes to win her fickle lord. she disturbs the society of the gods by her famous amours with ares, deceiving her husband, hephaestus, the lord of fire; and she even stoops to the embraces of mortals, as of anchises. in the homeric poems the charm of “golden aphrodite” does not prevent the singer from hinting a quiet contempt for her softness and luxury. but in this oldest greek literature the goddess is already thoroughly greek, nor did later ages make any essential changes in her character. concerning her birth homer and hesiod are not in the same tale; for while homer makes her a daughter of zeus, hesiod prefers, as usual, the more repulsive, and probably older story, which tells how she sprang from the sea-foam and the mutilated portions of cronus.227
but even in the hesiodic myth it is remarkable that the foam-born goddess first landed at cythera, or again “was born in wave-washed cyprus”. her ancient names — the cyprian and the cytherean — with her favoured seats in paphos, idalia and the phoenician settlement of eryx in sicily, combine with historical traditions to show that the greek aphrodite was, to some extent, of oriental character and origin. it is probable, or rather certain, that even without foreign influence the polytheism of greece must have developed a deity of love, as did the mexican and scandinavian polytheisms. but it is equally certain that portions of the worship and elements in the myth of aphrodite are derived from the ritual and the legends of the oriental queen of heaven, adored from old babylon to cyprus and on many other coasts and isles of the grecian seas. the greeks themselves recognised asiatic influence. pausanias speaks of the temple of heavenly aphrodite in cythera as the holiest and most ancient of all her shrines among the hellenes.228 herodotus, again, calls the fane of the goddess in askalon of the philistines “the oldest of all, and the place whence her worship travelled to cyprus,” as the cyprians say, and the phoenicians planted it in cythera, being themselves emigrants from syria. the semitic element in this greek goddess and her cult first demand attention.
among the semitic races with whose goddess of love aphrodite was thus connected the deity had many names. she was regarded as at once the patroness of the moon, and of fertility in plants beasts, and women. among the phoenicians her title is astarte among the assyrians she was istar; among the syrians, aschera; in babylon, mylitta.229 common practices in the ritual of the eastern and western goddesses were the licence of the temple-girls, the sacrifices of animals supposed to be peculiarly amorous (sparrows, doves, he-goats), and, above all, the festivals and fasts for adonis.
there can scarcely be a doubt that adonis — the young hunter beloved by aphrodite, slain by the boar, and mourned by his mistress — is a symbol of the young season, the renouveau, and of the spring vegetation, ruined by the extreme heats, and passing the rest of the year in the underworld. adonis was already known to hesiod, who called him, with obvious meaning, the son of phoenix and alphesiboea, while pausanias attributed to him, with equal significance, assyrian descent.230 the name of adonis is manifestly a form of the phoenician adon, “lord”. the nature of his worship among the greeks is most familiar from the fifteenth idyll of theocritus, with its lively picture of dead adonis lying in state, of the wailing for him by aphrodite, of the little “gardens” of quickly-growing flowers which personified him, and with the beautiful nuptial hymn for his resurrection and reunion to aphrodite. similar rites were customary at athens.231 mannhardt gives the main points in the ritual of the adonis-feast thus: the fresh vegetation is personified as a fair young man, who in ritual is represented by a kind of idol, and also by the plants of the “adonis-gardens”. the youth comes in spring, the bridegroom to the bride, the vernal year is their honeymoon. in the heat of summer the bridegroom perishes for the nonce, and passes the winter in the land of the dead. his burial is bewailed, his resurrection is rejoiced in. the occasions of the rite are spring and midsummer. the idol and the plants are finally cast into the sea, or into well-water.
the union of the divine lovers is represented by pairing of men and maidens in bonds of a kindly sentimental sort — the flowery bonds of valentines.
the oriental influence in all these rites has now been recognised; it is perfectly attested both by the phoenican settlements, whence aphrodite-worship spread, and by the very name of her lover, the spring. but all this may probably be regarded as little more than the semitic colouring of a ritual and a belief which exist among indo-european peoples, quite apart from phoenican influence. mannhardt traces the various points in the aphrodite cult already enumerated through the folk-lore of the german peasants. the young lover, the spring, is the maikonig or laubmann; his effigy is a clothed and crowned idol or puppet, or the maibaum. the figure is thrown into the water and bewailed in russia, or buried or burned with lamentations.232 he is wakened and kissed by a maiden, who acts as the bride.233 finally, we have the “may-pairs,” a kind of valentines united in a nominal troth.
for the rest, the concern of aphrodite with the passion of love in men and with general productiveness in nature is a commonplace of greek literature.
it would be waste of space to recount the numerous and familiar fables in which she inspires a happy or an ill-fated affection in gods or mortals. like most other mythical figures, aphrodite has been recognised by mr. max müller as the dawn; but the suggestion has not been generally accepted.234 if aphrodite retains any traces of an elemental origin, they show chiefly in that part of her legend which is peculiarly semitic in colour. for the rest, though she, like hermes, gives good luck in general, she is a recognised personification of passion and the queen of love.