if apollo soon disengages himself from the sun, and appears as a deity chiefly remarkable for his moral and prophetic attributes, artemis retains as few traces of any connection with the moon. “in the development of artemis may most clearly be distinguished,” says claus, the progress of the human intellect from the early, rude, and, as it were, natural ideas, to the fair and brilliant fancies of poets and sculptors.”112

there is no goddess more beautiful, pure and maidenly in the poetry of greece. there she shines as the sister of apollo; her chapels are in the wild wood; she is the abbess of the forest nymphs, “chaste and fair”, the maiden of the precise life, the friend of the virginal hippolytus; always present, even if unseen, with the pure of heart.113 she is like milton’s lady in the revel route of the comus, and among the riot of olympian lovers she alone, with athene, satisfies the ascetic longing for a proud remoteness and reserve. but though it is thus that the poets dream of her, from the author of the odyssey to euripides, yet the local traditions and cults of artemis, in many widely separated districts, combine her worship and her legend with hideous cruelties, with almost cannibal rites, with relics of the wild worship of the beasts whom, in her character as the goddess of the chase, she “preserves” rather than protects. to her human victims are sacrificed; for her bears, deer, doves, wolves, all the tameless herds of the hills and forests are driven through the fire in achaea. she is adored with bear-dances by the attic girls; there is a gloomy chthonian or sepulchral element in her worship, and she is even blended in ritual with a monstrous many-breasted divinity of oriental religion. perhaps it is scarcely possible to separate now all the tangled skeins in the mixed conception of artemis, or to lay the finger on the germinal conception of her nature. “dark,” says schreiber, “is the original conception, obscure the meaning of the name of artemis.”114

it is certain that many tribal worships are blended in her legend and each of two or three widely different notions of her nature may be plausibly regarded as the most primitive. in the attempt to reach the original notion of artemis, philology offers her distracting aid and her competing etymologies. what is the radical meaning of her name? on this point claus115 has a long dissertation. in his opinion artemis was originally (as dione) the wife, not the daughter, of zeus, and he examines the names dione, diana, concluding that artemis, dione and diana are essentially one, and that diana is the feminine of janus (djanus), corresponding to the greek. as to the etymology of artemis, curtis wisely professes himself uncertain.116 a crowd of hypotheses have been framed by more sanguine and less cautious etymologists. artemis has been derived from “safe,” “unharmed,” “the stainless maiden “. goebel,117 suggests the root arpar or par, “to shake,” and makes artemis mean the thrower of the dart or the shooter. but this is confessedly conjectural. the persian language has also been searched for the root of artemis, which is compared with the first syllables in artaphernes, artaxerxes, artaxata, and so forth. it is concluded that artemis would simply mean “the great goddess “. claus again, returning to his theory of artemis as originally the wife of zeus, inclines to regard her as originally the earth, the “mighty mother”.118

as schreiber observes, the philological guesses really throw no light on the nature of artemis. welcker, preller and lauer take her for the goddess of the midnight sky, and “the light of the night”.119 claus, as we have seen, is all for night, not light; for “night is identical in conception with the earth”— night being the shadow of earth, a fact probably not known to the very early greeks. claus, however, seems well inspired when he refuses to deduce all the many properties, myths and attributes of artemis from lunar aspects and attributes. the smallest grain of ingenuity will always suffice as the essential element in this mythological alchemy, this “transmutation” of the facts of legend into so many presumed statements about any given natural force or phenomenon.

from all these general theories and vague hypotheses it is time to descend to facts, and to the various local or tribal cults and myths of artemis. her place in the artistic poetry, which wrought on and purified those tales, will then be considered. this process is the converse of the method, for example, of m. decharme. he first accepts the “queen and huntress, chaste and fair,” of poetry, and then explains her local myths and rituals as accidental corruptions of and foreign additions to that ideal.

the attic and arcadian legends of artemis are confessedly among the oldest.120

both in arcadia and attica, the goddess is strangely connected with that animal worship, and those tales of bestial metamorphosis, which are the characteristic elements of myths and beliefs among the most backward races.

the arcadian myth of artemis and the she-bear is variously narrated. according to pausanias, lycaon, king of arcadia, had a daughter, callisto, who was loved by zeus. hera, in jealous wrath, changed callisto into a she-bear; and artemis, to please hera, shot the beast. at this time the she-bear was pregnant with a child by zeus, who sent hermes to save the babe, areas, just as dionysus was saved at the burning of semele and asclepius at the death of his mother, whom apollo slew. zeus then transformed callisto into a constellation, the bear.121 no more straightforward myth of descent from a beast (for the arcadians claimed descent from areas, the she-bear’s son) and of starry or bestial metamorphosis was ever told by cahrocs or kamilaroi. another story ran that artemis herself, in anger at the unchastity of callisto, caused her to become a bear. so the legend ran in a hesiodic poem, according to the extract in eratosthenes.122

such is the ancient myth, which otfried müller endeavours to explain by the light of his lucid common sense, without the assistance which we can now derive from anthropological research. the nymph callisto, in his opinion, is a mere refraction from artemis herself, under her arcadian and poetic name of calliste, “the most beautiful”. hard by the tumulus known as the grave of callisto was a shrine, pausanias tells us, of artemis calliste.123 pamphos, he adds, was the first poet known to him who praised artemis by this title, and he learned it from the arcadians. müller next remarks on the attributes of artemis in athens, the artemis known as brauronia. “now,” says he, “we set out from this, that the circumstance of the goddess who is served at brauron by she-bears having a friend and companion changed into a bear, cannot possibly be a freak of chance, but that this metamorphosis has its foundation in the fact that the animal was sacred to the goddess.”

it will become probable that the animal actually was mythically identified with the goddess at an extremely remote period, or, at all events, that the goddess succeeded to, and threw her protection over, an ancient worship of the animal.

passing then from arcadia, where the friend of the goddess becomes a she-bear, to brauron and munychia in attica, we find that the local artemis there, an artemis connected by legend with the fierce taurian goddess, is served by young girls, who imitate, in dances, the gait of bears, who are called little bears, apktoi, and whose ministry is named aptcreia, that is, “a playing the bear”. some have held that the girls once wore bear-skins.124

familiar examples in ancient and classical times of this religious service by men in bestial guise are the wolf-dances of the hirpi or “wolves,” and the use of the ram-skin in egypt and greece.125 these brauronian rites point to a period when the goddess was herself a bear, or when a bear-myth accrued to her legend, and this inference is confirmed by the singular tradition that she was not only a bear, but a bear who craved for human blood.126

the connection between the arcadian artemis, the artemis of brauron, and the common rituals and creeds of totemistic worship is now, perhaps, undeniably apparent. perhaps in all the legend and all the cult of the goddess there is no more archaic element than this. the speech of the women in the lysistrata, recalling the days of their childhood when they “were bears,” takes us back to a remote past when the tribes settled at brauron were bear-worshippers, and, in all probability, claimed to be of the bear stock or kindred. their distant descendants still imitated the creature’s movements in a sacred dance; and the girls of periclean athens acted at that moment like the young men of the mandans or nootkas in their wolf-dance or buffalo-dance. two questions remain unanswered: how did a goddess of the name of artemis, and with her wide and beneficent functions, succeed to a cult so barbarous? or how, on the other hand, did the cult of a ravening she-bear develop into the humane and pure religion of artemis?

here is a moment in mythical and religious evolution which almost escapes our inquiry. we find, in actual historical processes, nothing more akin to it than the relation borne by the samoan gods to the various animals in which they are supposed to be manifest. how did the complex theory of the nature of artemis arise? what was its growth? at what precise hour did it emancipate itself on the whole from the lower savage creeds? or how was it developed out of their unpromising materials? the science of mythology may perhaps never find a key to these obscure problems.127

the goddess of brauron, succeeding probably to the cult of a she-bear, called for human blood. with human blood the artemis orthia of sparta was propitiated. of this goddess and her rights pausanias tells a very remarkable story. the image of the goddess, he declares, is barbarous; which probably means that even among the archaic wooden idols of greece it seemed peculiarly savage in style. astrabacus and alopecus (the ass and the fox), sons of agis, are said to have found the idol in a bush, and to have been struck mad at the sight of it. those who sacrificed to the goddess fell to blows and slew each other; a pestilence followed, and it became clear that the goddess demanded human victims. “her altar must be drenched in the blood of men,” the victim being chosen by lot. lycurgus got the credit of substituting the rite in which boys were flogged before the goddess to the effusion of blood for the older human sacrifices.128 the taurian artemis, adored with human sacrifice, and her priestess, iphigenia, perhaps a form of the goddess, are familiar examples of this sanguinary ritual.129 suchier is probably correct in denying that these sacrifices are of foreign origin. they are closely interwoven with the oldest idols and oldest myths of the districts least open to foreign influence. an achaean example is given by pausanias.130 artemis was adored with the offering of a beautiful girl and boy. not far from brauron, at halae, was a very ancient temple of artemis tauropolos, in which blood was drawn from a man’s throat by the edge of the sword, clearly a modified survival of human sacrifice. the whole connection of artemis with taurian rites has been examined by müller,131 in his orchomenos132 horns grow from the shoulders of artemis tauropolos, on the coins of amphipolis, and on macedonian coins she rides on a bull. according to decharme,133 the taurian artemis, with her hideous rites, was confused, by an accidental resemblance of names, with this artemis tauropolos, whose “symbol” was a bull, and who (whatever we may think of the symbolic hypothesis) used bulls as her “vehicle” and wore bull’s horns.

müller, on the other hand,134 believes the greeks found in tauria (i.e., lemnos) a goddess with bloody “rites, whom they identified by reason of those very human sacrifices, with their own artemis iphigenia”. their own worship of that deity bore so many marks of ancient barbarism that they were willing to consider the northern barbarians as its authors. yet it is possible that the tauric artemis was no more derived from the taurians than artemis ?thiopia from the ?thiopians.

the nature of the famous diana of the ephesians, or artemis of ephesus, is probably quite distinct in origin from either the artemis of arcadia and attica or the deity of literary creeds. as late as the time of tacitus135 the ephesians maintained that leto’s twins had been born in their territory. “the first which showed themselves in the senate were the ephesians, declaring that diana and apollo were not born in the island delos, as the common people did believe; and there was in their country a river called cenchrius, and a wood called ortegia, where latona, being great with child, and leaning against an olive tree which is yet in that place, brought forth these two gods, and that by the commandment of the gods the wood was made sacred.”136

this was a mere adaptation of the delian legend, the olive (in athens sacred to athene) taking the place of the delian palm-tree. the real artemis of ephesus, “the image that fell from heaven,” was an oriental survival. nothing can be less greek in taste than her many-breasted idol, which may be compared with the many-breasted goddess of the beer-producing maguey plant in mexico.137

the wilder elements in the local rites and myths of diana are little if at all concerned with the goddess in her olympian aspect as the daughter of leto and sister of apollo. it is from this lofty rank that she descends in the national epic to combat on the ilian plain among warring gods and men. claus has attempted, from a comparison of the epithets applied to artemis, to show that the poets of the iliad and the odyssey take different views of her character. in the iliad she is a goddess of tumult and passion; in the odyssey, a holy maiden with the “gentle darts” that deal sudden and painless death. but in both poems she is a huntress, and the death-dealing shafts are hers both in iliad and odyssey. perhaps the apparent difference is due to nothing but the necessity for allotting her a part in that battle of the olympians which rages in the iliad. thus hera in the iliad addresses her thus:138 “how now! art thou mad, bold vixen, to match thyself against me? hard were it for thee to match my might, bow-bearer though thou art, since against women zeus made thee a lion, and giveth thee to slay whomso of them thou wilt. truly it is better on the mountains to slay wild beasts and deer than to fight with one that is mightier than thou.”

these taunts of hera, who always detests the illegitimate children of zeus, doubtless refer to the character of artemis as the goddess of childbirth. here she becomes confused with ilithyia and with hecate; but it is unnecessary to pursue the inquiry into these details.139

like most of the olympians, artemis was connected not only with beast-worship, but with plant-worship. she was known by the names daphn?a and cedreatis; at ephesus not only the olive but the oak was sacred to her; at delos she had her palm tree. her idol was placed in or hung from the branches of these trees, and it is not improbable that she succeeded to the honours either of a tree worshipped in itself and for itself, or of the spirit or genius which was presumed to dwell in and inform it. similar examples of one creed inheriting the holy things of its predecessor are common enough where either missionaries, as in mexico and china, or the early preachers of the gospel in brittany or scandinavia, appropriated to christ the holy days of pagan deities and consecrated fetish stones with the mark of the cross. unluckily, we have no historical evidence as to the moment in which the ancient tribal totems and fetishes and sacrifices were placed under the protection of the various olympians, in whose cult they survive, like flies in amber. but that this process did take place is the most obvious explanation of the rude factors in the religion of artemis, as of apollo, zeus or dionysus.

it was ever the tendency of greek thought to turn from the contemplation of dark and inscrutable things in the character of the gods and to endow them with the fairest attributes. the primitive formless zoana give place to the ideal statues of gold and ivory. the artemis to whom a fawn in a maiden’s dress is sacrificed does not haunt the memory of euripides; his artemis is fair and honourable, pure and maidenly, a goddess wandering in lonely places unbeholden of man. it is thus, if one may rhyme the speech of hippolytus, that her votary addresses her:—

for thee soft crowns in thine untrampled mead

i weave, my lady, and to thee i bear;

thither no shepherd drives his flocks to feed,

nor scythe of steel has ever laboured there;

nay, through the spring among the blossoms fair

the brown bee comes and goes, and with good heed

thy maiden, reverence, sweet streams doth lead

about the grassy close that is her care!

souls only that are gracious and serene

by gift of god, in human lore unread,

may pluck these holy blooms and grasses green

that now i wreathe for thine immortal head,

i who may walk with thee, thyself unseen,

and by thy whispered voice am comforted.

in passages like this we find the truly natural religion, the religion to which man’s nature tends, “groaning and travailing” till the goal is won, but it is long in the winning; the paths are rough; humanity is “led by a way that it knew not”.