the dances habitual among the roumanians may briefly be divided into three sorts:

1. caluseri and batuta, ancient traditional dances performed by men only, and often executed at fairs and public festivals. for these a fixed number of dancers is required, and a leader called the vatav. each dancer is provided with a long staff, which he occasionally strikes on the ground in time to the music.

2. hora and bre?l, round dances executed either by both sexes or by men only.

3. ardeleana, lugojana, marnteana, pe-picior, and hategeana, danced by both sexes together, and in which each man may have two or more female partners.

these last-named dances rather resemble a minuet or quadrille, and are chiefly made up of a sort of swaying, balancing movement, alternately advancing and retreating, with varied modes of expression and different rates of velocity. thus the ardeleana is slow, the marnteana rather quicker but still dignified, and the pe-picior is fastest of all. also, each separate dance has two distinct measures, as in the scotch reel or the hungarian csardas—the slow rhythm being called domol, or reflectively, and the fast one being danced cu foc, with fire.

all these dances are found in different districts with varied appellations.

there is also a very singular dance which i have not myself witnessed, but which is said to be sometimes performed in front of the church in order to insure a good harvest—one necessary condition of which is that the people should dance till in a state of violent perspiration, figurative of the rain which is required to make the corn grow; then the arms must be held on high for the hops to grow, wild jumps in the air for the vines, and so on, each grain and fruit having a special movement attributed to it, the dance being kept up till the dancers have to give in from sheer fatigue.

the roumanian does not say that a man is dancing with a girl, but that “he dances her,” as you would talk of spinning a top. this conveys the right impression—namely, that the man directs her dancing and disposes her attitudes, so as to show off her grace and charms to the best advantage. thus a good dancer here does not imply a man who dances well himself, but rather one skilful at showing off two or three partners at a time. he acts, in fact, as a sort of showman to the assortment of graces under his charge, to which he calls attention by appropriate rhymes and verses. therefore the sharpest wit rather than the nimblest legs is required for the post of vatav flacailor, or director of dances in the village.

dancing usually takes place in the open air; and in villages where ball-room etiquette is duly observed, the fair ones can only be conducted to the dance by the director himself, or by one of his appointed aides-de-camp. it is so arranged that after the leader has for a time shown off several girls in the manner described—so to say, set them agoing—he makes a sign to other young men to take them off his hands, while he himself repeats the proceeding with other débutantes.

the music usually consists of bagpipes and violin, the latter sometimes replaced by one or two flutes. the musicians, who are frequently blind men or cripples, stand in the centre, the dancers revolving around them. tzigane-players are rarely made use of for roumanian dances, as they do not interpret the roumanian music correctly, and are accused of imparting a bold, licentious character to it.

there are many occasions on which music is prescribed, and on all such it should not be wanting; but it is considered unseemly for music to play without special motive, and when the roumanian hears music he invariably asks, “la ce cantà?”—for whom do they play?

fully as many matrons as maidens figure at the village merrymakings, for, unlike the saxon, the roumanian woman does not dream of giving up dancing at her marriage. wedlock is to her an emancipation, not a bondage, and she only begins really to enjoy her life from the moment she becomes a wife. for instance, it is considered quite correct for a married woman, especially if she has got children, to suffer herself to be publicly kissed and embraced by her dancer, and no one present would think of taking umbrage at such harmless liberties.

in reciting or making a speech, the roumanian is careful to speak slowly and distinctly, with dignity and deliberation, and to avoid much gesticulation, which is regarded as ridiculous. it is also considered distinguished to speak rather obscurely, and veil the meaning under figures of speech—a man who says his meaning plainly in so many words being considered as wanting in breeding.

as in italy, the recitatore (story-teller), called here provestitore, holds an important place among the roumanians. the stories recited usually belong to the class of ogre and fairy tale, and would seem rather adapted to a nursery audience than to a circle of full-grown men and women. sometimes in verse, sometimes in prose, these stories oftenest set forth the adventures of some prince subjected to the cruel persecutions of a giant or sorcerer. the hero has usually a series of tasks allotted to him, or difficulties to be overcome, before he is permitted to enjoy his father’s throne in peace and lead home the beautiful princess to whom he is attached. the tasks dealt out to him must be three at least, sometimes six, seven, nine, or twelve; but never more than this last number, which indeed is quite sufficient for the endurance even of a fairy prince. when the tasks are nine or twelve in number they are then grouped together in batches of three, each batch being finished off with some stereotyped phrase, such as, “but our hero’s trials were not yet over by any means, and much remains still to be told.” as a matter of course, these trials must always be arranged crescendo, advancing in horror and difficulty towards the end.

the story invariably opens with the words,

“a fost ce a fost; dacà n’ar fi fost nici nu s’ar povesti,” which, corresponding to our “once upon a time,” may be thus translated: “it was what once took place, and if it had never been, it would not now be related;” and the concluding phrase is often this one, “and if they have not died, they are all yet alive.”

it is not every one who can relate a story correctly according to the roumanian’s mode of thinking. he is most particular as to the precise inflections of voice, which must alternately be slow and impressive, or impetuous and hurried, according to the requirements of the narrative. if the story winds up with a wedding, the narrator is careful to observe that he also was present on the occasion, in proof of which he enumerates at great length the names of the guests invited and the dishes which formed part of the banquet; and according to the fertility of imagination he displays in describing these details he will be classed by his audience as a provestitore of first, second, or third rank.

the roumanians have a vast répertoire of songs and rhymes for particular occasions, and many of these people seem to possess great natural fluency for expressing themselves in verse, assisted, no doubt, by the rich choice of rhymes offered by their language. some people would seem to talk as easily in verse as in prose, and there are districts where it is not considered seemly to court a girl otherwise than in rhymed speech. all these rhymes, as well as most of their songs and ballads, are moulded in four feet verse, which best adapts itself to the fundamental measure of roumanian music. among the principal forms of song prevalent in the country are the doina, the ballad, the kolinda, the cantece de irogi, the cantece de stea, the plugul, the cantece de paparuga, the cantece de nunta, the descantece, and the bocete.

1. the doina is a lyrical poem, mostly of a mournful, monotonous character, much resembling the gloomy dumkas of the ruthenians, and from which, perhaps, its name is derived; and this is all the more probable, as many of the songs sung by the roumanians of the bukowina are identical with those to be heard sung by their countrymen living in the hungarian banat. thus it is of curious effect to hear the celebrated song of the dniester, “nistrule riu blestemal” (dniester, cursed river), in which lament is made over the women carried off by the tartars, sung on the plains of hungary, so many hundred miles away from the scenes which originated it.

2. the ballad, also called cantece, or song proper, its title usually specifying whose particular song it is; for instance, “cantecul lui horia”—the song of hora, or more literally, hora, his song—lui jancu, lui marko, etc.

these ballads are sung to the accompaniment of a shepherd’s pipe or flute, but are oftener merely recited, it not being considered good form to have them sung except by blind or crippled beggars, such as go about at markets or fairs.

3. the kolinda, or christmas song, the name derived from a heathen goddess, lada. these consist of songs and dialogues, oftenest of a mythological character, and bearing no sort of allusion to the christian festival. the performers go about from house to house knocking at each door, with the usual formula, “florile s’dalbe, buna sara lui cracinim”—white is the flower, a happy christmas-night to you.

the turca, or brezaia, also belongs to the same category as the kolinda, but is of a somewhat more boisterous character, and is performed by young men, who, all following a leader grotesquely attired in a long cloak and mask (oftenest representing the long beak of a stork, or a bull’s head, hence the name), go about the villages night and day as long as the christmas festivities last, pursuing the girls and terrifying the children. a certain amount of odium is attached to the personification of the turca himself, and the man who has acted this part is regarded as unclean or bewitched by the devil during a period of six weeks, and may not enter a church nor approach a sacrament till this time has elapsed.

in the bukowina the turca, or tur, goes by the name of the capra, and is called cleampa in the east of transylvania.

4. the cantece de irogi is the name given to the text of many carnival games and dialogues in which rahula (rachel) and her child, a shepherd, a jew, a roumanian popa, and the devil appear in somewhat unintelligible companionship.

5. the cantece de stea—songs of the star—are likewise sung at this period by children, who go about with a tinsel star at the end of a stick.

6. the plugul—song of the plough—a set of verses sung on new-year’s day by young men fantastically dressed up, and with manifold little bells attached to feet and legs. they proceed noisily through the streets of towns and villages, cracking long whips as though urging on a team of oxen at the plough.

7. the cantece de paparuga are songs which are sung on the third sunday after easter, or in cases of prolonged drought.

8. the cantece de nunta are the wedding songs, of which there are a great number. these are, however, rarely sung, but oftener recited. they take various forms, such as that of invitation, health-drinking, congratulations, etc. to these may be added the cantece de cumetrie and the cantecul ursitelor, which express rejoicings over a new-born infant.

9. the descantece, or descantations, are very numerous. they consist in secret charms or spells expressed in rhyme, which, in order to be efficacious, must be imparted to children or grandchildren only when the parent is lying on his death-bed. these oftenest relate to illnesses of man or beast, to love or to life; and each separate contingency has its own set formula, which is thus transmitted from generation to generation.

10. the bocete are songs of mourning, usually sung over the corpse by paid mourners.

on the principle that the character of a people is best demonstrated by its proverbs, a few specimens of those most current among roumanians may be here quoted:

“a man without enemies is of little value.”

“it is easier to keep guard over a bush full of live hares than over one woman.”

“a hen which cackles overnight lays no egg in the morning.”

“a wise enemy is better than a foolish friend.”

“in the daytime he runs away from the buffalo, but in the night he seizes the devil by the horn.”[25]

“carry your wife your whole life on your back, but, if once you set her down, she will say, ‘i am tired.’”

“the just man always goes about with a bruised head.”

“sit crooked, but speak straight.”

“father and mother you will never find again, but wives as many as you list.”

“the blessing of many children has broken no man’s roof as yet.”

“better an egg to-day than an ox next year.”

“no one throws a stone at a fruitless tree.”

“patience and silence give the grapes time to grow sweet.”

“if you seek for a faultless friend you will be friendless all your life.”

“there where you cannot catch anything, do not stretch out your hand.”

“who runs after two hares will not even catch one.”

“the dog does not run away from a whole forest of trees, but a single stick will make him run.”

“a real jew will never pause to eat until he has cheated you.”

“you cannot carry two melons in one hand.”

“who has been bitten by a snake is afraid of a lizard.”