in order at all to understand the roumanian peasant, we must first of all begin by understanding his religion, which alone gives us the clew to the curiously contrasting shades of his complicated character. monsieur de gérando, writing of the wallacks some forty years ago, says,
“aujourd’hui leur seul mobile est la religion, si on peut donner ce nom à l’ensemble de leurs pratiques superstitieuses;” and another author, with equal accuracy, remarks that “the whole life of a wallack is taken up in devising talismans against the devil.”
historians are very much divided as to the date of the roumanians’ conversion to christianity, for while some consider this to have only taken place in the time of patriarch photius (in the ninth century), others are of opinion that they embraced christianity as early as the third century. it is not improbable that during the roman occupation of transylvania in the second and third centuries christians may have come hither, and so imparted their religion to the ancient inhabitants with whom they intermingled.
up to the end of the seventeenth century all the transylvanian roumanians belonged to the greek schismatic church. in the year 1698, however, the austrian government succeeded in inducing a great portion of the people to embrace the greek united faith, and acknowledge the supremacy of the pope; and at the present day the numbers of the two confessions in transylvania are pretty equally balanced, with only a small proportion in favor of the schismatic church.
the united roumanians in transylvania are subject to an archbishop residing at blasendorf, while those of the greek schismatic church stand under another archbishop, whose seat is at hermanstadt.
old chronicles of the thirteenth century make mention of the wallacks as a people “which, though professing the christian faith, is yet given to the practice of manifold pagan rites and customs wholly at variance with christianity;” and even to-day the roumanians are best described by the paradoxical definition of christian-pagans, or pagan-christians.
true, the roumanian peasant will never fail to uncover his head whenever he passes by a way-side cross, but his salutation to the rising sun will be at least equally profound; and if he goes to church and abstains from work on the lord’s day, it is by no means certain whether he does not regard the friday (vinere), dedicated to paraschiva (venus), as the holier day of the two. the list of other unchristian feast-days is lengthy, and still lengthier that of christian festivals, in whose celebration pagan rites may yet be traced.
whoever buries his dead without placing a coin in the hand of the corpse is regarded as a pagan by the orthodox roumanian. “nu-i-de-legea-noastra”—he is not of our law—he says of such a one; and whosoever stands outside the roumanian religion, be he christian, pagan, jew, or mohammedan, is invariably regarded as unclean, and consequently whatever comes in contact with any such individual is unclean likewise.
the roumanian language has a special word to define this uncleanness—spurcat—which corresponds somewhat to the koscher and unkoscher of the jews.
if any animal fall into a well of drinking-water, then the well forthwith becomes spurcat, and spurcat likewise whoever drinks of this water. if it be a large animal, such as a calf or goat, which has fallen into the well, then the whole water must be bailed out; and should this fail to satisfy the conscience of any ultra-orthodox proprietor, then the popa must be called in to read a mass over the spot where perhaps a donkey has found a watery grave. but when it is a man who has been drowned there, no further rehabilitation is possible for the unlucky well, which must therefore be filled up and discarded as quite too hopelessly spurcat.
every orthodox roumanian household possesses three different classes of cooking and eating utensils: unclean, clean for the meat-days, and the cleanest of all for fast-days.
the cleansing of a vessel which has, through some accident, become spurcat is only conceded in the case of very large and expensive articles, such as barrels and tubs; copious ablutions of holy-water, besides thorough scouring, scraping, and rubbing, being resorted to in such cases. all other utensils which do not come under this denomination must simply be thrown away, or at best employed for feeding the domestic animals. the roumanian who does not strictly observe all these regulations is himself spurcat.
this same measure he applies to all individuals whom he considers to be clean or unclean, according to their observance of these rules. the uncleanliness, according to him, does not lie in the individual, but in his laws, which fail to enforce cleanliness; the law it is, therefore, which is unclean, lege spurcat, which, for the roumanian, is synonymous with unchristian. for instance, a man who eats horse-flesh is by him regarded as a pagan.
this recognition of the uncleanliness of most of his fellow-creatures is, however, wholly independent of either hatred or contempt on the part of the roumanian, who, on the contrary, shows much interest in foreign countries and habits; and when he wishes to affirm the high character of a stranger, he says of him that he is a man who keeps his own law—tine la legea lui—spite of which the roumanian will refuse to wear the coat or eat off the plate of this honorable stranger, and would regard any such familiarity as a deadly sin.
the idea so strongly rooted in the roumanian mind, that they alone are christians, and that, consequently, no man can be a christian without being also a roumanian, seems to imply that there was a time when the two words were identical for them, and that, surrounded for long by pagans with whom they could hold no sort of community, they lacked all knowledge of other existing christian races.
on the other hand, these people are curiously liberal towards strangers in the matter of religion, allowing each one, whatsoever be his confession, to enter their churches and receive their sacraments. no roumanian popa durst refuse to administer a sacrament to whosoever may apply to him, be he catholic, protestant, jew, or pagan, provided he submits to receive it in the manner prescribed by the oriental church. so to-day, as six hundred years ago, the popa cannot, without incurring scandal, refuse to bury a jew, or administer the sacrament to a dying infidel; his church must be open to all mankind, and all are welcome to avail themselves of its blessings and privileges.
this liberality in religious matters cannot, however, be reversed, and no true roumanian ever consents to receive a sacrament from a priest of a different confession; and though he may occasionally assist at a protestant or catholic service, he conforms himself to no foreign forms of worship, but is careful to comport himself precisely as though he were in his own church. he does not mind joining a catholic procession on occasion, but no power on earth can induce him to take part in a strange funeral.
the position occupied by the roumanian clergyman towards his flock is such a peculiar one that it deserves a special notice. though his influence over his people is unlimited, it is in nowise dependent on his personal character. unlike the saxon pastor, it is quite superfluous for the popa to present in his person a model of the virtues he is in the habit of describing from the altar. he may, for his part, be drunken, dishonest, and profligate to his heart’s content, without thereby losing his prestige as spiritual head. like the indian bramins, his official character is absolutely intangible, and not to be shaken by any private misdemeanors; and the roumanian proverb which says, “face zice popa dar unce face el”—that is to say, “do as the popa tells you, but do not act as he does”—describes his attitude with perfect accuracy. only the popa has the privilege of wearing a beard, as he alone is privileged to indulge in certain pet vices which it is his mission{129} officially to condemn, and, like the virtue of charity, this beard may often be said literally to cover a very great multitude of sins.
these roumanian popas, with their thick curly beards, long flowing garments, and wide-brimmed hats, used to give me the impression of a set of jolly apostles, such as we sometimes see depicted on old church-windows; not infrequently the extreme joviality of their appearance threatening to overpower the apostolic character altogether, and completing the simile by suggesting further ideas of glorious crimson sunsets deepening each tint of the mellow-stained glass.
mr. boner, in his work on transylvania, mentions an instance of a group of roumanian villagers who were seen on a saturday afternoon dragging their sorely resisting spiritual head in the direction of the church. on being asked what they were about, the peasants explained that they were going to lock him up till sunday morning, else he would be too drunk to say mass for the congregation. “when church is over we shall let him out again.” from personal observation i have no doubt of the veracity of this story, having come across more than one roumanian village popa who would have been none the worse for a little such judicious confinement.
although of late years, thanks chiefly to the enlightened efforts of the late archbishop schaguna, much has been done to raise the moral standard of the roumanian clergy, yet there remains still much to do before the prevailing coarseness, brutality, and ignorance too often characterizing this class can be removed. at present the average village popa is simply a peasant with a beard, and is not necessarily a particularly respected or respectable individual. many well-authenticated cases are told of popas who could not write or read, and who betrayed their ignorance by holding the book of gospels upside down.
on week-days the popa goes about his agricultural duties like any other peasant, digging in the garden or going behind the plough as a matter of course; his wife is a simple peasant woman, and her children run about as dirty and unkempt as any other brats in the village.
on one occasion when i had visited a roumanian church i dropped twenty kreuzers (about fourpence) into the hand of the peasant lass who had unlocked the door for me. she accepted the coin with humble gratitude, but i felt myself to have been guilty of a terrible gaucherie when i subsequently discovered the young lady to be no other than madame popa herself!
towards any one of the higher classes the popa, as a rule, is crouching and obsequious, humbly uncovering his head, and hardly daring to take a seat when offered. an old hungarian gentleman told me of a roumanian popa who, when requested to be seated, declined so doing, as he considerately observed that he should not like to distress the noble gentleman by leaving vermin on his furniture.
the roumanian churches offer a pleasant contrast to the bleak, uncompromising appearance of the saxon ones. even when architecturally not remarkable, they are invariably covered with a profusion of ornament and decoration of extremely artistic effect. few places of worship appeal so strongly to the imagination as these oriental buildings, which, without as well as within, are one mass of warm soft coloring. the belfry tower is encircled by a procession of celestial beings, and the walls divided off into little arched niches beneath the roof, each of which harbors some quaint byzantine saint, with pale golden aureole and shadowy palm-branch. though the outlines may be somewhat primitive, and the laws of perspective but imperfectly understood, nature, the greatest artist of all, has here stepped in to complete the picture: summer showers and winter snows have mellowed each tint, and blended together the color into perfect harmony.
the same style of ornament is repeated inside with increased effect; for here the saintly legions which adorn the walls are brighter and more vivid, stronger and fiercer looking, because in better preservation. they seem to be the living originals of which those others outside are but the pale ghosts, and appear to rush at us from all sides as we enter the place, increasing in numbers as our eyesight gets used to the dim, mysterious twilight let in by the narrow windows. not a corner but from which starts up some grinning devil, not a nook but reveals some choleric-looking saint, till we feel ourselves to be surrounded by a whole pageant of celestial and diabolical beings, only distinguishable from one another by the respective fashions of their head-gear—horns or halos, as the case may be.
these horned devils play a very important part in each roumanian church, where usually a large portion of the walls is given up to representations of the place of eternal punishment. the poor roumanian peasant, whose daily life is often so wretched and struggling as hardly to deserve that name, seems to derive considerable consolation{131} from anticipations of the day when the tables are to be turned, and the hitherto despised poor shall receive an eternal crown. thus the hapless victims depicted as being marched off to the infernal regions under the escort of several ferocious-looking demons armed with terrific pitchforks, are invariably recruited from the ranks of the upper ten thousand. they are all being conducted to their destination with due regard for etiquette, and rigid observance of the laws of exact precedence. first comes a row of kings, easily to be distinguished by their golden crowns; then a procession of mitred bishops, followed by a line of noblemen booted and spurred; while on the other side of the wall a crowd of simple peasants and a group of shaven friars are being warmly invited by st. peter, key in hand, to step over the threshold of the golden gate which leads to paradise.
archbishop schaguna.
each of these churches is divided into three sections: first, there is the sanctuary, partitioned off by trellised gates, painted and gilt, behind which the priest disappears at certain parts of the ceremony; then, in the body of the church, up to the step approaching the sanctuary, stand the men, and behind them, in a sort of outer department connected by an archway, are the women, next to the door, and close to the pictures of hell.
in the more primitive buildings there are rarely benches for the congregation, but a curious sort of prong may be sometimes seen, constructed out of the forked branch of a tree, and which, placed at intervals along the walls, is intended to give support to feeble old people unable to stand upright during a lengthy service.
it is a pretty sight to look on at the celebration of mass in any roumanian church, more especially in summer, when every matron and maiden carries a bunch of sweet-scented flowers in her hand, and each man has a similar nosegay stuck in the cap which he holds beneath his arm. these flowers bestow an additional sprinkling of bright color over the scene, and counteract any closeness in the atmosphere by their pungent aromatic scent.