nearly all the more recent romances and dramas, whose scene is laid in classic times, depict the period of the great rupture between paganism and christianity. this is true of “hypatia,” “fabiola,” “the last days of pompeii,” “the epicureans,” “the emperor and the galilean,” “the last athenian,” and many other works. the cause of this coincidence is not difficult to understand; for a period containing such strong contrasts invites ?sthetic treatment.
the present tales derive their material from a different, but no less interesting epoch. they give pictures of the flowering of hellas, the distant centuries whose marvellous culture rested solely on the purely human elements of character as developed beneath a mild and radiant sky.
yet it required a certain degree of persistence to procure this material. when we examine the greek writers to find descriptions of the men of those times or the special characteristics of the social life of the period, greek literature, so rich in accounts of historical events, becomes strangely laconic, nay almost silent.
how entirely different is the situation of a personii who desires to sketch a picture of the frenchmen of the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries. the whole collection of memoirs is at his disposal. in these writings the author discourses familiarly with the reader, gives him lifelike portraits of the ladies and gentlemen of the court, and tells him the most minute anecdotes of the society of that day.
greek literature has nothing of this kind. the description of common events and the history of daily existence are forms of writing of later origin, nothing was farther from the minds of ancient authors than the idea that private life could contain anything worth noting. herodotus and thucydides narrated little or nothing of what the novelists of the present day seek, nay, even among the orators only scattered details are found, and strangely enough there are more in the speeches of lysias than of demosthenes.
among the poets aristophanes produces a whole gallery of contemporary characters, but indistinctly and in vague outlines; they were what would now be called “originals from the street” who, during the performance of his comedies, sat among the spectators, and whom he only needed to mention to evoke the laughter of the crowd. something more may be gathered from lucian and apuleius, together with the better “milesian” tales, especially from heliodorus and achilles tatius while, on the contrary, the great alexandrian lumber-room, owed to athenaeus, contains more gewgaws of learning and curiosa than really marked characteristics.
iii in the obscure recesses of greek literature, where we are abandoned by all translators, and where—as everybody knows who has devoted himself to the interpretation of the classics—only short excursions can be made, we are sometimes surprised at finding, by pure accident, useful matter. dion chrysostomus (vii) gives extremely interesting descriptions of life in the greek villages and commercial towns. but what is discovered is always so scattered that only a few notes can be obtained from numerous volumes.
when i decided to turn what i had read to account, i was fully aware that a presentation of ancient life in the form of a romance or novel was one of the most difficult ?sthetic tasks which could be undertaken. if, nevertheless, i devoted myself to it, i naturally regarded the work only as an experiment.
in choosing the narrow frame-work of short stories i set before myself this purpose—to sketch the ordinary figures of ancient life on a historical background. i have—resting step by step on the classic writers—endeavored to present some pictures of ancient times; but i have no more desired to exalt former ages at the expense of our own than the contrary. as to the mode of treatment—i have steadily intended to keep the representations objective, and to avoid using foreign words or giving the dialogues a form so ancient that they would not be easy to read.a the stiffiv classic ceremonies, foot-washings, etc., i have almost entirely omitted, and the archaeological and historical details have everywhere been subordinated to the contents of the story, so that they merely serve to give an antique coloring to the descriptions. lastly, i have believed that the greek characters ought to be completely banished from the book, and even from the notes and preface.
a so far as the idiomatic differences of the two languages would permit, the translator has endeavored to retain the simplicity of style deemed by the author best suited to his purpose.
after these general remarks i must be permitted to dwell briefly upon the different tales, partly to point out the authority for such or such a stroke and partly to give some few more detailed explanations.
little is known of the pelasgian epoch; but it is a historical fact that a woman was abducted at the fountain of callirrho?. on this incident the first story “zeus hypsistos” is founded, and the climax of periphas’ death is based upon an ancient idea: a voice of fate. the belief in phēmai or cledones is older than in that of most oracles, and dates back to the days of homer. when ulysses is wandering about, pondering over the thought of killing the suitors, he prays to zeus for a sign and omen, a voice of fate, which then sounds in a thunder-clap and, inside of the house, he hears a slave-girl wishing evil to the suitors. the old demi-god cychreus of salamis is mentioned by pausanias (i. 36). it was a universal idea in ancient times that demi-gods liked to transform themselves into serpents. in the battle of salamis a serpent appeared in the athenian fleet; the oracle declared that it was the ancient demi-god cychreus. in eleusis demeter hadv a serpent called the cychrean, for cychreus, who had either slain it or himself assumed its form. for the remarkable ceremonial of purification after a murder (page 58), see apollonius’ argonautica (iv. 702). the words: “zeus was, zeus is, and zeus will be” are borrowed from the ancient hymn sung by the dodonian priestesses, called peleiades (doves.)
in “the sycophant” the notes cited on pages 72–73 would be valueless, if they did not contain the punishments which, according to attic law, were appointed for the transgressions named.
hetaeriae was the name given to secret societies or fraternities, where six, seven, or more members united to work against or break down the increasing power of the popular government, which was exerting a more and more unendurable pressure. there were many kinds of “hetaeriae,” but the most absolute secrecy was common to all. the members were conspirators, pledged to assist one another by a solemn oath, sworn by what was dearest to them in life. the harmless hetaeriae comprised those who were pursuing no political object, but merely consisted of office-seekers whose purpose was to aid one another in the election to office or before the courts of justice. the hetaeria here described is of the latter sort; for the delineation of a political society of this kind would require a far more extensive apparatus than could be contained within the brief limits of a tale. several of the characters in “the hetaeria” have actually existed. the comedian sthenelus is mentioned by aristophanes (vesp. 1313) asvi well as the orator and tragedian acestor (vesp. 1220; aves 31) both are sketched from the more minute details of the scoliastae. phanus is also mentioned by aristophanes (equit. 1233) as cleon’s clerk. among the women of the tale there is also an historical personage, the foreign witch ninus, who professed to be a priestess of the phrygian god sabazius. she travelled through hellas at the time of the peloponnesian war and reaped a rich harvest by her divination and manufacture of love potions; but her end was tragical—she was summoned before the courts as a poisoner and condemned to death (a. schaefer, demosth. i. 199). the main outlines of the relations between hipyllos and cleobule are taken from the commencement of cnemon’s story in heliodorus (i. 2) and the description of sthenelus’ fall from the boards is almost literally repeated from lucian (the dream, 26). the account of the naval battle at rhion is an extract from thucydides (ii. 86–92).
“too happy” is founded upon an ancient idea: the prayer for a sign and the acceptance of an omen. piracy, which plays a prominent part in the narrative, was practised at an early period in the ?gean sea and afterwards attained such dangerous extent that large and magnificent fleets of pirate cruisers finally threatened rome herself with intercepting the importations of grain from pontus. it might perhaps be considered too romantic for a disguised corsair to examine the ship lying in port before plundering her in the open sea. quite different things, however, are reported. thevii phoenician pirates had secret agents who discovered where a ship with a rich cargo lay and promised the helmsman “ten-fold freight money,” if he would anchor in some secluded place, behind a promontory, etc., where the vessel could be overpowered. (philostratus, vita apoll. tyan. iii. 24). the conclusion of the story (the ladder hung outside of the ship so that it touches the water) is taken from plutarch (pompeius, 24).
in “lycon with the big hand” the artist aristeides and what is said of his paintings are historical. the same is true of the traits of character cited about the tyrant alexander of pherae. under the description of the earthquake is given an account of what is called in seismology a tidal wave. a side-piece to this may be found in thucydides (iii. 89) where—after a remark about the frequency of earthquakes during the sixth year of the peloponnesian war—it is stated: “among these earthquakes the one at orobi? in eub?a displayed a remarkable phenomenon. the sea receded from the shore; then suddenly returned with a tremendous wave and flooded part of the coast, so that what was formerly land became a portion of the sea. many people perished.”
in these five stories the scene is laid in athens, on the ?gean sea, and in thessaly—but, wherever it is, i have always endeavored to give the characters life and movement, and make them children of the times and of the hellenic soil. i have also sought to delve deeper into the life of ancient times than usually happens inviii novels. many peculiarities, like the purification after a murder in the first tale, the baetylus oracle in “the hetaeria,” and the use of the great weapon of naval warfare, the dolphin, in “too happy” have scarcely been previously described in any form in our literature. the belief in marvellous stones animated by spirits was widely diffused in ancient times, as such stones, under the name of abadir, were known in phoenicia. the description of the baetylus oracle is founded upon pliny (17, 9, 51), photius (p. 1047) and pausanias (x. 24). it is evident enough that the stone-spirit’s answer was given by the ventriloquist’s art. though the ancients had several names for ventriloquists, such as engastrimythae, sternomanteis, etc., the art was certainly little known in daily life, it seems to have been kept secret and used for the answers of oracles, etc. the soothsayer and ventriloquist eurycles, mentioned by aristophanes, endeavored to make the people believe that a spirit spoke from his mouth because he uttered words without moving his lips. for the dolphin, the weapon used in naval warfare, see scholia graeca in aristoph. (equit 762) and thucydides (vii. 41).
in the ancient dialogue i have always endeavored to give the replies an individual coloring, and it will be found that acestor speaks a different language from sthenelus, philopator from polycles, etc. phrases like: “begone to the vultures,” “show the hollows under the soles of the feet,” “casting fire into the bosom,” etc., may easily be recognized as borrowed from theix classic writers. to enter into the subject more minutely would be carrying the matter too far. single characteristic expressions, such as palpale legein, etc. cannot be reproduced.
in introducing the reader to so distant and alien a world, it has been a matter of great importance to me to win his confidence; with this purpose i have sought by quotations to show the authority for what i have written. here and there, to remove any doubt of the existence of an object in ancient times, i have added the greek names. for the rest i have everywhere striven to follow the old maxim artis est celare artem.
copenhagen, november 1, 1881.
p. mariager.