the confederation of the iroquois, page 23.—when the europeans discovered north america they found that portion of the continent lying east of a line about as far west as the city of cleveland, ohio, and from the great lakes on the north to the chesapeake bay on the south, practically under the control of a confederacy of tribes, to which the french in after years applied the term iroquois, and which the english called the five nations. this confederacy was composed of the senecas, mohawks, onondagas, oneidas and cayugas. in the year 1712 the tuscaroras, a tribe previously located in north carolina, were defeated in a war with their white neighbors, and about one thousand eight hundred of them fled to what is now new york state, then the actual dwelling-place of most of the iroquois, and were adopted into the confederacy. the new tribe did not possess the energy and courage of their associates, and for several years after their coming the men wore the tobacco pouches of the women, thus acknowledging upon all occasions that they were inferior to the other five nations comprising the union which had become their protectors. after the coming of the tuscaroras the confederacy was known as the six nations of indians—a designation which is often used at the present time in law in matters pertaining to the indians of new york state.
the date of the formation of this confederacy has never been settled with any degree of certainty, and all attempts have ended in mere conjecture and speculation. the most authentic tradition heretofore published places the date about the year 1589, but there is no positive proof that this date is accurate. the legend of its ? 198 ? formation here published is not only based upon what was considered reliable authority by cornplanter, but has also the sanction of that other noted seneca chief, governor blacksnake (the nephew), who was contemporaneous with cornplanter, and who was probably born about the year 1736 and died in 1859, at the supposed age of one hundred and twenty-three years. these chiefs both claimed to have seen a string of wampum in their early years that placed the formation of the confederacy at a time when there occurred a total eclipse of the sun—"a darkening of the great spirit's smiling face"—that took place when the corn was receiving its last tillage, long before events that could be reliably ascribed to the year 1540.
at this point it will be well to say that the indians possessed strings of wampum which actually recorded historical events. they were made upon the skins of some animal and were formed of small pieces of bone, variously shaped and colored, small stones, and a variety of small shells, quills and sometimes the teeth or claws of animals. these were strung upon the tanned skin by piercing holes through them and tying them securely with sinews. certain ones in the tribe were selected as keepers of the wampum and it was their duty to store all necessary facts in their memory and associate with them the successive lines and arrangement of the stones, shells, quills, etc., so that they could be readily called to mind. at general councils these records were brought before the people and solemnly expounded. as these people possessed remarkable memories, the meaning of the wampum string was accurately carried down from generation to generation.
the place of holding the council that formed the confederacy has also been the subject of some dispute, but it is pretty certain that it was near the northern end of either seneca or cayuga lake, and that it took place in that year previous to 1540 in which occurred ? 199 ? an eclipse of the sun in the month when the corn receives its last tilling.
professor lewis swift, of the warner observatory, rochester, kindly furnished the following table of dates:
annular eclipse october 11, 1520
annular eclipse may 8, 1491
total eclipse july 29, 1478
total eclipse june 28, 1451
annular eclipse april 26, 1427
the first given, october, 1520, is out of the question, as the corn would have been harvested at that time of year.
the second, may, 1491, would have been too early in the season to comply with the conditions of the wampum record, for the corn would hardly have made its appearance above the ground as early as the 8th of may.
the third, the last of july, 1478, will not answer the account given, for the ears of the maize would have been forming at that time and the plant would have passed its period of tillage.
the fourth date, june 28, 1451, must, therefore, have been the one upon which the confederation took place, as at that time of the year the corn in central new york is about ready for its final tilling.
upon the authority of these two chiefs it is not difficult to believe that this date is historically correct and that the incident related in the legend was the occasion upon which this wonderful union of republics was formed. considered as a government formed by a savage people, the confederation of the iroquois certainly was a wonderful union. had it not been broken and destroyed by the whites after a series of wars extending over two centuries and culminating in the great village-burning expedition of sullivan in ? 200 ? 1779, this confederacy would have made rapid progress in civilization.
among the five nations alone can be found the indian of the novelist and poet. the iroquois stand out and above all other aboriginal inhabitants in their intelligence, their oratory, their friendship and their character. had they been treated with fairness; had they not been made the subjects of the most cruel wrongs and deceptions; had they not been driven to retaliation and finally to relentless slaughter, the pages of our histories would doubtless have recorded of this people achievements of which any nation might be proud.
a legend of the river, page 47.—this story was told of the genesee river and falls, and is occasionally heard among the older senecas at the present time. it is said that one family of the senecas were very much opposed to signing the treaty that surrendered the territory surrounding the scene of this legend. they claimed to be descendants of tonadahwa and her brave rescuer, and believed that the spirits of their dead ancestors often visited the scene of their adventure and upon this spot plighted anew their troth. there is little doubt that this story, in the main, is true, and that a young indian and a maiden, whom he was trying to rescue from a warrior of another tribe, were almost miraculously preserved alive after being carried over the genesee falls in a canoe. this legend has been put forth in various ways, one of which was that the indians living near niagara falls were accustomed to sacrifice annually to the spirit of the falls by sending the fairest maiden of the tribe over the precipice in a white birch canoe, decked with fruits and flowers. frequently male relatives or lovers are said to have accompanied or followed victims who were set apart for this sacrifice. if this is so it must have been a practice of some other tribe ? 201 ? than those composing the iroquois, for the iroquoian tribes did not practice customs which called for the sacrifice of human life, unless the sacrifice was self-imposed.
legends of the corn, page 51.—corn, or maize, was the chief food of the indians and consequently there were many legends concerning its origin. the two here given were looked upon as the oldest. the indians had a firm belief that it was possible to change one's form, unless the one desiring the change was unfortunate enough to be under the influence of some evil spirit that out of malice prevented the transformation. the indian women were especially proud of the legend attributing the origin of the maize to the frightened maiden fleeing from her lover, and it was told to their daughters very often and with many extravagant embellishments.
the first winter, page 55.—the indians were taught never to speak ill of any of the celestial bodies or of the works of nature. they must never complain of the glare and heat of the sun, lest they be stricken blind; nor must they complain of the clouds for fear that they might be shut up in caves in the mountains where no light could enter. the moon must be treated with the same respect and consideration, for those who said aught against her were in imminent danger of death by a fall of rocks from the sky. the most severe storms of wind, snow, frost or hail must be treated only with great respect. those who complained about them were by this act unarmed and could not resist their attacks and rigors. in fact, they were taught to "take the bitter with the sweet" without making wry faces. this training through long generations rendered the race cold and stoical, apparently indifferent to suffering. they probably suffered the same as others, but they bore it ? 202 ? without a sign. this legend was a very common one and was frequently told the young in order that the lesson might be deeply impressed upon them that they should never set themselves up in opposition to the great spirit or complain of the enforcement of his laws.
the story of oniata, page 63.—cornplanter held that there were many traditions among the indians that in one way or another mentioned persons who were described as white; and this, too, long before the coming of the europeans. one tradition was to the effect that thousands of years ago, away off to the southwest, there was a tribe of indians in which were born several children who were made "like the great spirit, with faces as the sun." they were said to be very proud of the distinction and also to have been great warriors. they were believed to have wandered to the south and finally to have been lost in the mountains. after the coming of the europeans this tradition was revived, and the ever-ready imagination of the indians added a sequel to the disappearance of the "white indians." they said the whites had gone across the bitter lake (the ocean) and founded the nations of the palefaces and were now returning to conquer and subdue their forefathers. it was cornplanter's belief that this was the older continent and that the indian was nearest the original creation. he did not believe these traditional white people were as white as the english. they possessed all the indian features, he said, but had light-colored skins and light hair.
since this volume was made ready for publication the author found in a western newspaper an account of the return from new mexico of a mr. williamson, who had been spending some months in an out-of-the-way place in that territory among the moqui indians. mr. williamson told an interesting story about a family of that tribe the members of which are white. he saw these people and asserts there is no doubt as to their color. he also says they are without doubt pure indians and that they have none of the characteristics of the albinos often seen among the negroes. the family is known far and wide among the indians themselves, but as their place of residence is some distance from the usual routes traveled by white men, they are rarely seen by others than the race to which they belong. the indians look upon them as something holier than the rest of the tribe, and hence do not talk about them to outsiders. the narrator stated that the head man of the family says that there is a tradition among them that they originally came from the north and settled among the moqui people, where they have been so long that they have lost all knowledge of the northern tribe and were not certain that they now spoke the language of their progenitors. when any of the moqui married into the family, their children were always white. this discovery, if true and there seems no reason for such a statement unless it be true is interesting in this connection and may be looked upon by some as a proof of the claim that about the year a. d. 400 a race of white people occupied the territory bordering the southern shores of the great lakes, and that they were driven away by red men who came from still further north. of course this is speculation and will probably remain a mystery as long as the world stands.
the buzzard's covering, page 77.—this legend regarding the buzzard's plumage was often told by the indians to illustrate the failure of some one of their number to win success in marriage or upon the chase. "we wear the turkey buzzard's feathers," said one of the sioux chiefs a few years ago when making complaint to a congressional committee. few of those who heard him understood the metaphor and the supposition was that he referred to the plainness of his clothing compared with that of the politicians who met him. this expression coming from a sioux chief proves that at least some of the legends common among the iroquois centuries ago can be traced among the tribes of the west at the present time. a white man to convey the same meaning would say, "we have the worst end of the bargain," or, "we have only a crooked stick at last."
origin of the violet, page 81.—the indian term for the violet is "heads entangled." this is not one of the legends told by cornplanter. it was told the author by a seneca indian named simon blackchief. afterwards the authenticity of the legend was confirmed by inquiries among other members of the seneca nation.
the turtle clan, page 85.—of the various clans existing among the iroquois the turtle was probably the most respected. the families belonging to the turtles were in reality the freemasons of those days and to them were accorded the highest honors. at the council-fires the wisdom of the turtles was displayed in counselling unity of action. their opinions were almost always accepted without discussion.
the healing waters, page 89.—the indians possessed for many years a knowledge of the curative properties of the mineral springs of this country and held the waters in the highest veneration. their faith in them was so great that some did not hesitate to declare that the waters would cure all ills. another spring that they held in high reverence was an oil spring situated in allegany county, new york state, near the pennsylvania line. the water of this spring is covered with a thick substance that was formerly collected by the indians by conducting the water into pools and ? 205 ? skimming the surface with flat stones or the branches of trees. the oil thus collected was used to mix with various substances to form war-paint, but more especially as a healing salve for various wounds. the indians knew of its existence for many centuries, and there were few days in summer when bands of indians were not in that vicinity gathering the oil, which they evaporated by exposure to the sun and then stored in raw-hide or earthen vessels for future use. years ago the spring and a plot of ground one mile square was set aside as a reservation, and it is still held as such. a curious fact in this connection is that the oil from the spring was vaseline in its crude state, and the same substance is now extensively secured from petroleum oil wells in that vicinity.
the message bearers, page 119.—the belief of the indians that the echoes they heard among the mountains and forests were spirits who repeated from one to another the words spoken by the men and women until the words reached heaven itself, is almost too beautiful to be destroyed by the cold facts of science. there is something about their theory that appeals very strongly to all and makes us wish that we, like the indians of a thousand years ago, could believe that our prayers, if spoken boldly, would be caught from our lips by waiting and listening spirits and carried to "the tent of the great spirit."
it was customary for them to frequent rivers with high wooded banks, or to seek ravines with precipitous sides where reverberations could be heard for miles, until they would die away in the distance. here they would stand for hours, shouting and listening as the echoing shouts leaped from shore to shore, or from hill to mountain and from mountain to valley—on and on into silence; always firmly believing that the words were called from one to another of the faithful spirits until they reached the ears of their loved ones and finally the great spirit himself. this custom was practiced among the senecas less than one hundred years ago, and there are now living men who have been present on occasions when nearly the whole tribe participated in an event of this character. this belief was doubtless the origin of the "death shout" that indian warriors are said to make when mortally wounded upon the battle field. the cry is sent forth by the dying warrior to let the friends whom he would meet in heaven know that he has started on the long journey.
the hunter, page 129.—this legend is one of the many relating the origin of the "medicine compound." when the rejoicing over the return to life of kanistagia had ceased, the bear and fox took him aside and imparted the secret of the mysterious compound which had mended his wounded head when once the scalp had been restored. there has always been a great deal of mystery, and something of superstition, concerning, "indian medicines," and quack nostrums have been eagerly sought by people of these later years simply because they were labeled with indian names and ascribed to indian origin. the fact is the indians were poor doctors. they knew the virtue of catnip, peppermint, pennyroyal, and a few simple herbs of like nature. they knew that lobelia would act as an emetic and throw poisons from the stomach. they found that a salve made from the inner bark of the slippery elm and elder would heal wounds. while they had an infinite variety of so-called "medicines," their cures were generally effected through faith and good constitutions, aided by a liberal use of cold water. they lived out of doors during the greater part of their lives, and to this, more than to their knowledge of cures, may be ascribed their longevity.
the secret of their "great medicine" was imparted to but few, ? 207 ? and the formula here given was told the author by one of the older jimmersons, a resident of the seneca reservation: each year before the coming of the frosts a meeting of the chiefs was held in one of the largest wigwams. those entitled to attend could not enter the wigwam before dark. each one brought with him several of the rarest herbs, roots, branches of trees or fruits of which he had knowledge, and often hundreds of miles had been traversed in the search for some particularly scarce product. these, with a few simple, fragrant herbs and a certain proportion of dry corn and beans, were pounded into a pulpy mass. each one present assumed the character of some bird or animal, and they often masqueraded to carry out the role. no words passed between them, but a continual din was kept up as each one sounded the cries of the bird or animal he represented. one would bark like a fox, another caw like a crow, a third would growl like a bear, the fourth, fifth and sixth chatter like squirrels, raccoons or ground-hogs. another would scream like a hawk, while others would imitate the wild turkey, geese, ducks, etc. they worked rapidly, for they must complete their task before the break of day. if one closed his eyes in sleep, it was a sure sign that the plague would come upon the tribe. at daylight the compound was divided, carefully bestowed in panther skin pouches, and carried away for future use.
the manner of administering it was as curious as its manufacture. water was dipped from a running stream in a wooden vessel. care was taken to dip with the current—never against it. when the water in the vessel had become absolutely quiet, three small portions of the powder were carefully dropped on its surface in the form of a triangle. if the powder spread over the surface of the water, as dust often will, the patient hastily gulped down the dose and got well. if the powder sank to the bottom without spreading over the surface, the medicine man quickly departed with his potion and no further effort was made to save the patient's life.
hiawatha, page 137.—this version of hiawatha follows as closely as it is possible to translate into english the legend as told by governor blacksnake (the nephew). this aged seneca chief was contemporaneous with cornplanter, and died december 26, 1859, at the age of 117 or 120 years. he was a very intelligent man, possessing all the nobler traits of his race and very few, if any, of the baser ones. he possessed the confidence and esteem of washington, and to the day of his death wore upon a thong around his neck a silver medal given him by washington. he also constantly carried a little leathern pouch containing a pass written and signed by washington's own hand.
it is believed that many will be pleased to read in prose the beautiful story that longfellow has immortalized in verse, and into which he wove many other curious legends to make the story complete. the form of the tradition here given is believed to be the purest one extant. its narrator repeated it frequently to assemblages of the senecas up to a few months prior to his death, and as here given follows the story precisely as it came from blacksnake's own lips.
this legendary account of the formation of the confederacy of the iroquois differs materially from the historical account as given by cornplanter. the story of hiawatha was believed by cornplanter as implicitly as any christian believes the bible. but he said this happened so many years ago, when everything was spiritual and supernatural, that the five nations in time came to look upon it as something that was not binding upon them. by degrees they drifted away and were estranged, and the council-fire combined and lighted by hiawatha at that time was permitted to ? 209 ? go out—that is, each tribe held its separate council. after the second reunion of the tribes (see note and legend "the confederation of the iroquois") the council was again established at onondaga, and the great council-fire was relighted on the spot hallowed by the presence of their wisest leader. it is also interesting to note that the councils of the iroquois were held at onondaga until january 18, 1777. in the war of the revolution the mohawks, onondagas, senecas and cayugas favored the english. the mohawks went to canada and never returned, save as foes, till after peace was declared, and the other tribes named lent the english much assistance. the oneidas and tuscaroras remained neutral, but really aided the colonists. on the 19th of january, 1777, a delegation of oneida indians visited fort stanwix (now rome), and told the commanding officer that the council-fire of the iroquois at onondaga had the previous day been extinguished for all time. what was probably the oldest confederacy in the world died in the very infancy of american independence.
the peacemaker, page 149.—the location of this "city of refuge" will, of course, never be known, and all that can be said about it must be simply speculation. it seems reasonable to suppose that it was located in a somewhat central position; where it would be most convenient to all the tribes. from the fact that genetaska and her lover went southward to a river and took a canoe to complete their wedding trip, it is believed that kienuka was situated in one of the three valleys in the central part of the state of new york, drained respectively by the tioughnioga, the chenango or the unadilla rivers. the eloping couple are said to have been the progenitors of a very intelligent tribe on chesapeake bay, and probably reached their home by way of the susquehanna river. elias johnson, a tuscarora indian, gives a somewhat different ? 210 ? version of this legend, and says that kienuka was located four miles eastward of the inlet of the niagara gorge at lewiston. although mr. johnson is possessed of much information as to the early legends of his people, it is probable that he has erred in the location of the peace-home. the location he points out would have been manifestly unfair to the mohawks and oneidas, and, indeed, it would have been very difficult of access to all the tribes, for even the senecas (the westernmost tribe) would have had to make a journey of nearly a hundred miles to have gotten within the sacred walls.
wherever it was, kienuka was a veritable "city of refuge." its queen was chosen as indicated in the legend and her word became law. there was absolutely no appeal from it. with three or four retainers, who must be old women, she was supported by all the tribes, and great quantities of food were stored at the retreat for the relief of those who came there in distress. this must be ready at all times for those who might be in want. disputes were not tolerated in the presence of the peacemaker and would have been punished by death if reported to the council. every one who reached the charmed circle was safe from molestation until the peacemaker had delivered her sentence. if for some offence the refugee should be adjudged guilty of a crime punishable by death, he must be taken far from the peace-home before the sentence could be executed, for the shedding of blood within its pale was strictly forbidden. for this reason, when deserted by genetaska, whose vows were forgotten in the love she bore the young oneida, kienuka became the scene of bloodshed, and it was afterwards shunned, accursed and desolated.
six hundred years elapsed after the occurrence of this romantic incident before the office of queen peacemaker was again filled. the shock the indians felt over the betrayal of such a high trust as ? 211 ? that imposed in genetaska led them to practically abolish the venerated custom. in 1878 they bestowed the honor upon caroline parker, a sister of general eli s. parker, a former member of general grant's staff. she was a resident of the tuscarora reservation, and afterwards became the wife of john mountpleasant. she is possessed of a comfortable home and a fortune of moderate size. she is a woman of education and refinement, and is in all respects an ideal peacemaker. her home is ever open to the poor, distressed and needy; her heart is moved by pity at every sign of suffering; her sound judgment and fine sensibilities render her a most valuable friend and counsellor.
an unwelcome visitor, page 155.—this legend was as common among the indians as are the parables of the prodigal son or the good samaritan among christians. it was told to the young very impressively and often, that they might learn by its teachings never to refuse welcome and shelter to a stranger, no matter what his condition, even though he be covered with the awful pustules of smallpox, with which the visitor in the legend is supposed to have been suffering. if they should refuse shelter, they might be, unawares, turning "good medicine" from the door. this is also one of the legends explaining the origin of the knowledge possessed by the indians of the curative properties of plants and roots. unfortunately the name of the benefactress of their race who figures in the legend has been lost, but in all tribes and clans there have been noted sagawahs who were supposed to be her descendants. as no one could enter the happy hunting-grounds except through the gate of death, the great spirit's messenger, who had gone through much suffering for the welfare of the red men, brought upon himself the "fatal disease"—consumption—for which the indians had no remedy.