the following considerations may enable us to understand the reasons for all these facts. we must remember that an animal is by nature humid and warm, and to live is to be of such a constitution, while old age is dry and cold, and so is a corpse. this is plain to observation. but the material constituting the bodies of all things consists of the following-the hot and the cold, the dry and the moist. hence when they age they must become dry, and therefore the fluid in them requires to be not easily dried up. thus we explain why fat things are not liable to decay. the reason is that they contain air; now air relatively to the other elements is fire, and fire never becomes corrupted.

again the humid element in animals must not be small in quantity, for a small quantity is easily dried up. this is why both plants and animals that are large are, as a general rule, longer-lived than the rest, as was said before; it is to be expected that the larger should contain more moisture. but it is not merely this that makes them longer lived; for the cause is twofold, to wit, the quality as well as the quantity of the fluid. hence the moisture must be not only great in amount but also warm, in order to be neither easily congealed nor easily dried up.

it is for this reason also that man lives longer than some animals which are larger; for animals live longer though there is a deficiency in the amount of their moisture, if the ratio of its qualitative superiority exceeds that of its quantitative deficiency.

in some creatures the warm element is their fatty substance, which prevents at once desiccation and congelation; but in others it assumes a different flavour. further, that which is designed to be not easily destroyed should not yield waste products. anything of such a nature causes death either by disease or naturally, for the potency of the waste product works adversely and destroys now the entire constitution, now a particular member.

this is why salacious animals and those abounding in seed age quickly; the seed is a residue, and further, by being lost, it produces dryness. hence the mule lives longer than either the horse or the ass from which it sprang, and females live longer than males if the males are salacious. accordingly cock-sparrows have a shorter life than the females. again males subject to great toil are short-lived and age more quickly owing to the labour; toil produces dryness and old age is dry. but by natural constitution and as a general rule males live longer than females, and the reason is that the male is an animal with more warmth than the female.

the same kind of animals are longer-lived in warm than in cold climates for the same reason, on account of which they are of larger size. the size of animals of cold constitution illustrates this particularly well, and hence snakes and lizards and scaly reptiles are of great size in warm localities, as also are testacea in the red sea: the warm humidity there is the cause equally of their augmented size and of their life. but in cold countries the humidity in animals is more of a watery nature, and hence is readily congealed. consequently it happens that animals with little or no blood are in northerly regions either entirely absent (both the land animals with feet and the water creatures whose home is the sea) or, when they do occur, they are smaller and have shorter life; for the frost prevents growth.

both plants and animals perish if not fed, for in that case they consume themselves; just as a large flame consumes and burns up a small one by using up its nutriment, so the natural warmth which is the primary cause of digestion consumes the material in which it is located.

water animals have a shorter life than terrestrial creatures, not strictly because they are humid, but because they are watery, and watery moisture is easily destroyed, since it is cold and readily congealed. for the same reason bloodless animals perish readily unless protected by great size, for there is neither fatness nor sweetness about them. in animals fat is sweet, and hence bees are longer-lived than other animals of larger size.