we have stated above that without flexion in the legs or shoulders and hips no sanguineous animal with feet could progress, and that flexion is impossible except some point be at rest, and that men and birds, both bipeds, bend their legs in opposite directions, and further that quadrupeds bend their in opposite directions, and each pair in the opposite way to a man’s limbs. for men bend their arms backwards, their legs forwards; quadrupeds their forelegs forwards, their back legs backwards, and in like manner also birds bend theirs. the reason is that nature’s workmanship is never purposeless, as we said above, but everything for the best possible in the circumstances. inasmuch, therefore, as all creatures which naturally have the power of changing position by the use of limbs, must have one leg stationary with the weight of the body on it, and when they move forward the leg which has the leading position must be unencumbered, and the progression continuing the weight must shift and be taken off on this leading leg, it is evidently necessary for the back leg from being bent to become straight again, while the point of movement of the leg thrust forward and its lower part remain still. and so the legs must be jointed. and it is possible for this to take place and at the same time for the animal to go forward, if the leading leg has its articulation forwards, impossible if it be backwards. for, if it be forwards, the stretching out of the leg will be while the body is going forwards, but, if the other way, while it is going backwards. and again, if the flexion were backwards, the placing of the foot would be made by two movements and those contrary to one another, one, that is, backwards and one forwards; for in the bending together of the limb the lower end of the thigh would go backwards, and the shin would move the foot forwards away from the flexion; whereas, with the flexion forwards, the progression described will be performed not with contrary motions, but with one forward motion.

now man, being a biped and making his change of position in the natural way with his two legs, bends them forward for the reasons set forth, but his arms bend backwards reasonably enough. if they bent the opposite way they would be useless for the work of the hands, and for taking food. but quadrupeds which are also viviparous necessarily bend their front legs forwards. for these lead off first when they move, and are also in the forepart of their body. the reason that they bend forward is the same as in the case of man, for in this respect they are like mankind. and so quadrupeds as well as men bend these legs forward in the manner described. moreover, if the flexion is like this, they are enabled to lift their feet high; if they bent them in the opposite way they would only lift them a little way from the ground, because the whole thigh and the joint from which the shin-bone springs would lie under the belly as the beast moved forward. if, however, the flexion of the hind legs were forwards the lifting of these feet would be similar to that of the forefeet (for the hind legs, too, would in this case have only a little room for their lifting inasmuch as both the thigh and the knee-joint would fall under the position of the belly); but the flexion being backwards, as in fact it is, nothing comes in the way of their progression with this mode of moving the feet. moreover, it is necessary or at least better for their legs to bend thus when they are suckling their young, with a view to such ministrations. if the flexion were inwards it would be difficult to keep their young under them and to shelter them.