(a) constitution and orders

§ 1. attitude to roman catholicism

a movement which claimed to be a revival, and even a survival, of primitive christianity would not be likely to frame its constitution and orders upon the lines of a church which it regarded as hopelessly corrupt, and which subjected it to pitiless persecution; any likeness between the two would be due merely to the claim or fact that they were derived from a common source. the roman church had three orders—priests, deacons, and sub-deacons; the catharists also had three orders—majors, presbyters and deacons; but the difference was fundamental, for whereas the roman orders were sacramental, the catharist were merely executive. apostolic succession was not confined to commissioned officers, but included the rank and file. it was proved not by ecclesiastical pedigrees, but by personal experience and responsive conduct. for it was the direct gift of the holy spirit to the individual, and was not mediated through man. these spirit-filled persons composed the true church. it is less true to say that the heretics were "praecisi ab ecclesia"[52] than that they deliberately repudiated and left the church because it had forfeited its status by quenching the holy spirit, {66} as was shewn by its corruptions and persecutions. the loss of the holy spirit involved the loss of its power to excommunicate. only those were successors of the apostles who copied their life.

as life is in the whole body and in every member of the body, so the holy spirit was in their church and in every member of the same. hence, too, every local church possessed the authority of the whole to elect its officers, whose authority, again, was not limited to such local church, but could be exercised anywhere. nor, when once conferred, was this authority regarded as a personal charisma. they did not say: "ego te absolvo," but "deus tua peccata tibi dimittat."[53]

the waldenses, however, were less uncompromising in their attitude towards roman orders. thus raymond, the waldensian deacon, in his inquisition at languedoc, declared that their majors did not have the keys of the kingdom of heaven, but did have the same powers of absolution as bishops of the roman church, and that their presbyters had equal powers with the priests of the roman church, "quia idem sunt in fide et in credulitate." on the other hand, raymond valsiera of ax, described as a manichee, and a pupil of the intransigeant william autéri, in his confession, denied to the prelates and priests of the roman church any power to absolve, because they were the enemies of the holy faith.

§ 2. credents

adherents were divided into credents and perfects, the latter being the more advanced. a movement exposed to constant persecution and espionage would exercise the greatest care in admission to its membership, and only after the most searching examination and most {67} solemn promises were its doors thrown open to applicants. initiation into membership was called by enemies "heretication," and was of a more elaborate character with the catharists than with the waldenses. according to peter de vaux-sarnai in his "historia albigensium," the waldenses, of whom he held a higher opinion than of other heretics,[54] had an initiatory rite which involved a total renunciation of their roman baptism and creed. "when any one joins the heretics, he who receives him says, 'friend, if you wish to be of us, you ought to renounce the whole faith which the roman church holds,' he answers, 'i do renounce it.' 'therefore receive the holy spirit from good men,' and then he breathes seven times on his face. then he says to him, 'do you renounce that cross which the priest made on you in your baptism on breast and shoulders and head with oil and chrism?' he answers, 'i do renounce it.' 'do you believe that water works salvation for you?' he answers, 'i do not believe it.' 'do you renounce that veil which the priest placed on your head for you when you were baptized?' he answers, 'i do renounce it.' then he receives the baptism of the heretics. all then place their hands upon his head and kiss him and clothe him in a black robe, and from that hour he is one of them." this catechism confirms the statement of ermengard, who wrote a tract against the waldenses (although he does not mention them by name) that the sacrament of baptism was unprofitable, unless a person answered with his own mouth and from his heart. imposition of hands was substituted for affusion of water, the kiss of peace for the oil of chrism, so that the charge of anabaptism cannot be maintained.

we are better served in our information of catharist {68} ritual since the publication by l. cledat in 1887 of the new testament,[55] which was translated in the thirteenth century into proven?al, and to which is appended the catharist ritual preserved in folio 235 of ms. 36 of the mss. in the library of st. peter's palace at lyons.

the credents had first of all to make their confession in these words: "we confess our sins before god and you, and before the ordinances of holy church, that we may receive pardon and penance for all sins in thought and word and deed, and for all offences in the sight of the father, the son and the honoured holy spirit and of the honoured holy apostles, by prayer and faith and by the salvation of all the loyal glorious christians and blessed ancestors asleep and the brethren here present, and before you, holy lord, that you may pardon all that in which we have sinned. benedicite, parcite nobis. and whereas the holy word of god instructs us, as also the holy apostles, and our spiritual brethren tell us that we should renounce all the lusts of the flesh and all impurity, we confess that we have not done so. benedicite, parcite nobis." (other sins are also confessed, and each confession ends with "benedicite, parcite nobis").

"the credent must then fast, and when the christians agree to deliver to him the orison (lord's prayer) they shall wash their hands, and the credent shall do likewise. then one of the good men, who is next unto the elder, shall make three bows (révérances) to the elder, and then prepare a table, and having made three more {69} bows, shall place a cloth upon it, and having made three more bows, shall place the book upon the cloth, and shall say, 'benedicite, parcite nobis.' then the credent shall make his melioramentum,[56] and take the book from the hand of the elder, who shall then admonish him and preach to him with suitable proofs (témoignages). and if the credent is called peter, he shall say: 'peter, you must understand that you are before the church of god, you are before the father, the son and the holy spirit. for the church means union, and where are true christians, there are the father, son and holy spirit (st. matt. xviii. 20; st. john xiv. 23; 2 cor. vi. 16, 18; xiii. 2; 1 tim. iii. 14, 15; heb. iii. 6). the spirit of god is with the faithful of jesus christ, and christ dwells in them [as stated] in st. john xiv. 15-18; st. matt. xxviii. 20; 1 cor. iii. 16, 17; st. matt. x. 20; 1 st. john iv. 13; gal. iv. 6. for god's people separated themselves of old from their lord god. and they separated themselves from the counsel and will of their holy father by the deceit of evil spirits and by yielding to their will. and for these and many other reasons they were made to understand that the holy father wishes to have mercy upon his people, and to receive them into peace and concord by the advent of his son, jesus christ, and this is your opportunity. for you are here before the disciples of jesus christ in the place where spiritually dwell the father, the son and the holy spirit, as we have shewn above, to receive the holy orison which jesus christ has given to his disciples in order that your orisons and prayers may be granted by our holy father. this is why you ought to understand, if you wish to receive this holy orison, that you must repent of all your sins and forgive all people. (st. matt. vi. 15).... it follows that you purpose to {70} keep this holy orison all your life, if god give you grace to receive it, according to the custom of the church of god, with chastity and truth and all other virtues which god shall please to give you. this is why we pray to the good lord who has given to the disciples of jesus christ the virtue to receive this holy orison with stedfastness, that he may give you also the grace to receive it with stedfastness, both to his honour and your salvation. p.n.'

"then the elder says the orison, and the credent repeats it. then the elder says: 'we deliver this holy orison in order that you may receive it of god and of us and of the church, and have power to say it all your life, day and night, alone and in company, and that you never eat or drink without first saying this orison.' and he shall say, 'i receive it of god and of you and of the church.' he shall then make his melioramentum and give thanks, and then the christians shall make a 'double avec veniae' (? 'benedicite, parcite nobis,' twice), and the credent shall say it after them.

and if he ought to be 'consoled'[57] on the spot, the credent must make his melioramentum, and take the book from the hand of the elder. and the elder shall admonish him and preach to him with suitable proofs and such words as are appropriate to his consolamentum,[57] and say thus: 'peter, you wish to receive spiritual baptism whereby is given the holy spirit unto the church of god, with the holy orison, with the imposition of the hands of the good men. of this baptism our lord speaks (st. matt. xxviii. 19, 20; st. mark xvi. 15; st. john iii. 5; i. 16, 17; st. mark iii. 11; acts i. 5). this baptism by the imposition of hands has been instituted by jesus christ (st. mark xvi. 18; acts ix. 17, 18), and afterwards paul and barnabas practised it in several {71} places. this holy baptism by which the holy spirit is given the church has kept since the apostles until now, and it has come from the good men to the good men until now, and will be unto the end of the world. and you must understand that power is given to the church of god to bind and loose, to forgive and retain sin, as christ said (st. john xx. 21; st. matt. xvi. 18, 19; xviii. 19, 20 [18, 19]; x. 8; st. john xiv. 12; st. mark xii. 17; st. luke x. 19). and if you wish to receive this power, you must keep all the commandments of christ and the new testament according to your power. and know that he has commanded that man shall not commit adultery, or murder, or lie; that he shall not swear any oath; that he shall not seize or rob; he must pardon and love his enemies; pray for his calumniators; if one strike him on one cheek, turn to him the other also; must hate the world and the things that are in the world (1 st. john ii. 16, 17; st. john vii. 7; book of solomon [eccles.] i. 14; st. jude, brother of st. james, 23).' and he shall say: 'i have this will: pray to god for me that he will give me his power.' and then one of the good men shall make his melioramentum with the credent to the elder and say, 'parcite nobis. good christians! we pray you by the love of god that you grant this blessing, which god has given you, to our friend here present.' and the credent shall make his melioramentum and say, 'parcite nobis. for all sins i ask the pardon of god and the church and you all.' and the christians shall say, 'by god and us and the church they have been forgiven you. and we pray god that he will forgive you.' and then they shall console him. and the elder shall take the book and place it upon his head and the other good men shall each take his right hand, and say the 'parcias' and 'adoremus' three times, and then: 'holy father, {72} receive thy servant into thy righteousness and put thy grace and holy spirit upon him,' and then they shall pray to god with the orison, and he who directs the service ought to say in a low voice the 'sixaine,' and then the 'adoremus' three times and the orison once in a loud voice, and then the gospel. and when the gospel is said, they ought to say 'adoremus' three times and the gratia and the parcias.

before a credent was admitted to membership he had solemnly to promise to submit to the "abstinence" or discipline of the church which comprised certain rules of conduct, and the church had to satisfy itself that the applicant was of sufficient moral strength to discharge his obligations. thus, if a christian comes into a place of danger he shall pray the gratia. if anyone mounts a horse he shall observe the double (i.e. says the orison twice). if he goes on board ship, or enters a town, or passes over a plank or a dangerous bridge, he shall say the orison. if he finds anything on the road, he must not touch it, if he knows the owner. if he knows the owner, but cannot overtake him, he must leave the article on the road. if he wishes to drink or eat he must say the orison twice before and twice after doing so. christians must visit sick christians, and inquire into their life. christians must pay their debts, and shall not be received into membership until they have done so, but if they cannot pay, they are not to be repelled on that account. they must promise to hold their heart and their goods, both present and future, at the disposal of god and the church. if an applicant for membership agrees to all this, the good men answer: "we impose on you this abstinence that you may receive it of god and of us and of the church, and may you keep it all your life. for if you observe it well, with the other things which you have to do, we have hope that your soul will have {73} life." and he shall answer: "i receive it of god and of you and of the church."

the rite of initiation was called consolamentum, but further consideration of this word must be deferred owing to certain obscurities in its use. it is sufficient here to remark that the ceremonies accompanying it varied according to the physical condition and ecclesiastical position of the recipient. from the chief act in the ceremony it received the alternate title of the imposition of hands, whereby was conveyed the gift of the holy spirit the consolator (hence its name), but the gift could not be conveyed if the officiating minister were in sin as interpreted by their own laws.

§ 3. perfects

next to the credents came the perfecti,[58] who undoubtedly formed the core of the whole movement. between the credents and the perfect, peter de vaux-sarnai draws the distinction as follows: "credents are those who love a secular life, and do not aim at imitating the life of the perfect, although they hope to be saved by the same faith. they are different in their manner of living, but are one in faith and unfaith (fide et infidelitate)." only after a long probation and distinguished service were they chosen to the honourable position of the perfect. although, as such, the position carried with it no special office, yet they were required to devote their whole time to discreet propaganda and the interests of their co-religionists. they professed absolute poverty and were forbidden to work or to engage in any trade, as that would expose them to lying, fraud or taking an {74} oath. they were supported in money, food and hospitality by the credents. only to avoid detection and arrest were they allowed to work; or when safe, as a protest against catholicism on the fast days of the church. since from them alone were elected the officers—majors, elders, deacons—it was of the utmost importance that they should observe all dietary rules as described already, since a violation of them would invalidate any ceremonial function in which they took part, e.g. the consolamentum.[59] their relation to women is not quite clear, and qualifications for "perfection" varied. while strict celibacy was aimed at, facts modified the ideal. some insisted that no perfect could be married, and if married, he must dismiss his wife. raymond de costa, a waldensian deacon, affirmed that according to the new testament, no one who had a wife could be ordained a bishop or an elder, and any ordination of the married was null and void, 1 timothy iii. and titus i. he referred to the one church. a perfect would not sit on the same bench with a woman, however long it might be. on the other hand, women travelled about with them to attend to their personal wants, a practice which provoked much unfavourable comment. some excluded even widowers from the rank of perfect. there were two grades among the perfect—the novellani, or novices, and the sandaliati. these latter were promoted to the higher grade only after long and faithful and distinguished service, and for their proved knowledge of the scriptures and ability to teach others. they dressed in black and wore sandals which protected only the soles, leaving the {75} rest of the foot bare.[60] they went from place to place, encouraging the "faithful," and instructing them in the scriptures, so far as they accepted them, and taking with them interpreters when necessary.

from the perfect were taken the three orders—deacons, presbyters (or elders) and majors (or bishops[61]), whose authority was derived not from the roman church, but from the holy spirit in their own church.

§ 4. deacons

the qualifications for the office of deacon were membership of at least six years, a knowledge of the scriptures, ability to say the pater noster and ave maria (!),[62] a blameless life and unimpeachable loyalty, not under twenty years of age and unmarried; if married, he was not allowed to dismiss his wife in order to be ordained. he had to take the threefold vow of chastity, poverty and obedience to majors or bishops. his duties were to attend upon the majors or bishops, as mark upon barnabas and paul, when itinerating. he might be sent from one church to another to widen his knowledge. thus raymond the waldensian said, under examination, that he had been a deacon for twenty-seven years, having been ordained by john lotaringa, who after two years' instruction sent him to other members of the community, and he did not return for seven years. a deacon was ordained by the prayer and imposition of the hands of a major only, and was subject to his {76} authority. he was not allowed to hear confessions[63] or to carry the reserved sacrament or to preach, but he could read the gospel in church, although he seldom did so, and take a minor part with presbyters and majors in the election and ordination of a major.

§ 5. presbyters

although it is correct to speak of three orders, it does not appear that the diaconate was that from which alone the presbyterate was supplied. a deacon might be "perpetual," and a presbyter was elected direct from the ranks of the perfect. the consent of the local church must be unanimous. the ordination took place once or twice a year at the conferences[64] at which all the business was transacted. he took the three vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. the congregation said the lord's prayer and confessed their sins, after which the major and presbyters laid their hands upon him. the only difference between the ordination of a deacon and that of a presbyter appears to have been that at the former the people also laid their hands upon him. a presbyter was now qualified to hear confessions, and impose but not remit penalties, the latter office of remission being reserved for the major. in the absence of the major he could "make the body of christ." if there was danger of the succession failing, a presbyter could appoint and ordain a major, since by virtue of his forsaking all and following christ he was like the apostles and had apostolic authority. as a rule, however, he only took part with other presbyters and deacons in the ordination of majors. with the waldenses the {77} clergy of the roman church were not "re-ordained," but ordered to take the above threefold vow and reminded of the persecutions to which they were exposed, before being allowed to officiate.

§ 6. majors or bishops

this was the highest of the three orders, although we find traces of a superior major, called the pontifical, whose relation to a major would correspond roughly to that of an archbishop to a bishop. reinéri saccho states that the cathari had four orders: (1) episcopus; (2) filius major; (3) filius minor; (4) diaconus, and that on the death of a bishop, a filius minor ordained a filius major to be the new bishop, and that he in turn ordained the filius minor to be a filius major. but some objected to this procedure on the ground that it was like a son appointing a father. hence, authority was given to a bishop to appoint an elder son as bishop to succeed him on his decease. but this was not general. as a rule, as already stated, the threefold order obtained, although possibly the title of major was taken from that of the filius major and made equivalent to that of episcopus. when a vacancy in the majoralty occurred, the presbyters and deacons met together, and the oldest in orders, "like peter at the election of matthias," explained the purpose of their assembly, and nominated a presbyter for the vacant office. his nominee then left the room, and the president enumerated the qualifications of a major—learning, loyalty, length of service, personal sanctity and capacity to rule the household, the church, and declared that in his opinion the presbyter nominated possessed all these qualifications. if the meeting agreed,[65] the {78} presbyter was called in, and on being questioned promised to keep the laws of the society and to exact the obedience of all under his authority. a major took no part in the election of a major, but except in an emergency, his presence was essential to a major's ordination. after the promise (not oath) of obedience had been given, the congregation knelt and said the lord's prayer; and on rising from their knees, the major-elect made his private confession to the major, and a general confession to the congregation, and prayed to god to give him his holy spirit. then came the most important ceremony of all, the imposition of hands, first by the major, having obtained the assent of the congregation, and then by the presbyters and deacons. if, however, there was no major present, the eldest presbyter, with the consent of the other presbyters and deacons could act for him.

neither deacon, presbyter nor major wore any dress distinctive of their order. of the majors it was said: "he is clothed in good work, fastings and prayers; his mitre is spiritual, i.e. his authority to rule is from god and man; his pastoral staff also is spiritual, viz. the threatenings of holy scripture against sinners, and his encouragements of the weaker brethren by word and deed; his episcopal ring was his integrity in the faith."

the first pontifical major was ordained in the same way as a major, but afterwards only a pontifical could ordain a pontifical. if, however, there was no pontifical available, either by death or absence, the authority to ordain reverted to the presbyters and deacons.

full disciplinary powers were vested in a major, and therefore there could not be two majors in one local church. in the discipline of deacons, he was not bound to consult the church; for the deacon vowed direct obedience to the major, and therefore the major could {79} inflict and remove penalties for offences. he could expel a deacon from the church and re-admit him. the rite for reconciliation of a deacon was imposition of hands, but this did not imply re-ordination. in the major alone was vested the power to impose penance upon and to receive lapsed brethren, but the addition of treachery ipso facto precluded any re-admission, for treachery was the unpardonable sin. penance was imposed in a prescribed form.[66] the order of major also carried with it the duty of preaching and making (conficere) the body and blood of christ, and authority to commission presbyters to do the same, except that at easter only majors could consecrate at holy communion.[67]

the heretics regarded their orders as in no whit inferior to those of the roman church. to their own and roman bishops alike they denied the powers of the keys of the kingdom of heaven, as then understood, but their powers of absolution were the same, seeing that both had the apostolic succession through the holy spirit. but this recognition of roman orders was only ideal and theoretical, because the heretics maintained that the roman church had practically forfeited its authority through its corruptions and persecutions. the catharists regarded this forfeiture as irremediable and final: the waldenses as recoverable by repentance and reformation along the lines of their own tenets. in this way we may reconcile the conflict of evidence as to the relationship between catholic and heretical orders.

[52] inquis. of carcassonne "de manichaeis moderni temporis" (p. 58).

[53] inquis. of languedoc, beginning of fourteenth century (cod. vat. 4070).

[54] "quidem mali erant, sed comparatione aliorum haereticorum longe minus perversi."

[55] m. chabaneau ("revue des langues romanes," xxxiii, 462) remarks that several of the passages quoted in the ritual from the n.t. as well as the ritual itself present features characteristic of the dialect in vaudois books, a fact which, he points out, should not be overlooked in considering the problem, "qu'on croit peut-être à tort pleinement résolu," of the origin of the ritual of lyons.

[56] vide infra, p. 84.

[57] vide infra, pp. 73, 83.

[58] a title based on st. matt. xix. 21. outside scripture the title meets us as early as the council of ancyra (a.d. 314), which is noteworthy in view of the association of catharism with galatia, of which ancyra was the capital; several of its canons also deal with matters closely resembling the doctrines and practices of the catharists.

[59] si quis de perfectis peccaret mortaliter comedendo, videlicet modicissimum carnium, etc., omnes consolati ab illo amittebant spiritum sanctum, et oportebat eum iterum reconsolari (peter de vaux-sarnai, ermengard, etc.). but, on the other hand, as eating flesh was distasteful to them, they might eat it on fast days to afflict the soul, thus reversing catholic usage (inquis. of carcassonne).

[60] de paup. de lugdano (cod. vatic. lat. 2648, no date or author).

[61] reinéri saccho, a catharist, not a waldensian, gives four orders. (1) episcopus; (2) filius major; (3) filius minor; (4) diaconus (gretzer, vol. xii).

[62] others deny this on the ground that it was the custom of the roman church. if used at all, its use was probably understood as referring to their own pure (catharist) church. the waldenses did not use either the ave maria or the creed.

[63] inquis. of languedoc, fourteenth century. but reinéri saccho, the ex-catharist, says that the deacons could hear confessions of venial sins once a month.

[64] at these conferences no credent, young perfect or woman attended.

[65] their opinions were ascertained individually, beginning with the eldest.

[66] v. infra, p. 86.

[67] v. infra, p. 81.