"and though they prove not, they confirm the cause,

when what is taught agrees with nature's laws."

dryden's relig. laici.

prefatory remarks.

in endeavouring to give some idea of abernethy's manner in more sustained compositions, we have made some selections from the lectures he delivered at the college of surgeons. without any pretensions to a critically faultless style, there always seemed to us to be a peculiar simplicity, combined with a broad and comprehensive range of thought. sometimes, too, he has almost a "curiosa felicitas" in the tone of his expressions; though this was more remarkable, we think, when he felt more free; that is, in his unrivalled teaching at the hospital, of which we shall endeavour to give a more particular account. as we have before remarked, it is impossible to do full justice to abernethy, unless we were to publish his works, with a running commentary; and we fear that in the selections we offer we have incurred a responsibility which we shall not properly fulfil. to convey the full, the suggestive merit of even some of the following passages, it would be necessary to state carefully the relation they bear to the state of science, both chemical and physiological, at the time they were written, and the present.

the interest of the lectures is so evenly distributed through the whole, that selection is very difficult; and being obliged to consider our limits, we have, in the absence of a better guide, selected the passages at random, as suggested by our own impressions of them. we therefore can only earnestly recommend the perusal of the lectures themselves, as equally entertaining and instructive to the general as well as the professional reader. the varied expression and manner, and his fine intellectual countenance, by which he imparted so much interest to his delivery on every subject he touched, will be considered in connection with his success in the art of lecturing, to which these somewhat formal specimens may serve as an introduction.

198

the apparent universal distribution of some powerful

force like electricity, magnetism, etc.

"when, therefore, we perceive in the universe at large a cause of rapid and powerful motions of masses of inert matter, may we not naturally conclude that the inert molecules of vegetable and animal matter may be made to move in a similar manner by a similar cause?"

repudiation of an often-alleged opinion.

"it is not meant that electricity is life. there are strong analogies between electricity and magnetism; and yet i do not know that any one has been hardy enough to assert their absolute identity40. i only mean to prove that mr. hunter's theory is verifiable, by showing that a subtile substance of a quickly, powerfully mobile nature seems to pervade everything, and appears to be the life of the world; and therefore it is probable that a similar substance pervades organized bodies, and produces similar effects in them.

"the opinions which, in former times, were a justifiable hypothesis, seem to me now to be converted into a rational theory41."

in relation to microscopic observation.

"this general and imperfect sketch of the anatomy of the nervous system relates only to what may be discovered by our unassisted sight. if by means of the microscope we endeavour199 to observe the ultimate nervous fibres, persons in general are as much at a loss as when, by the same means, they attempt to trace the ultimate muscular fibres42."

illustration, of motion not necessarily implying sensation.

"assuredly, motion does not necessarily imply sensation; it takes place where no one ever yet imagined there could be sensation. if i put on the table a basin containing a saturated solution of salt, and threw into it a single crystal, the act of crystallization would begin from the point touched, and rapidly and regularly pervade the liquor till it assumed a solid form. yet i know i should incur your ridicule if i suggested the idea that the stimulus of salt had primarily excited the action, or that its extension was the effect of continuous sympathy. if, also, i threw a spark amongst gunpowder; what would you think, were i to represent the explosion as a struggle resentful of injury, or the noise as the clamorous expression of pain43?"

different nervous systems variously affected by similar

impressions.

"thus the odour of a cat, or the effluvia of mutton, the one imperceptible, the other grateful to the generality of persons, has caused individuals to fall on the ground as though bereaved of life, or to have their whole frame agitated by convulsions. substances which induce disease in one person or animal, do not induce disease in others44."

200

importance of opinions.

"thinking being inevitable, we ought, as i said, to be solicitous to think correctly. opinions are equally the natural result of thought, and the cause of conduct. if errors of thought terminated in opinions, they would be of less consequence; but a slight deviation from the line of rectitude in thought may lead to a most distant and disastrous aberration from that line in action. i own i cannot readily believe any one who tells me he has formed no opinion on subjects which must have engaged and interested his attention. persons both of sceptical and credulous characters form opinions, and we have in general some principal opinion, to which we connect the rest, and to which we make them subservient; and this has a great influence on all our conduct. doubt and uncertainty are so fatiguing to the human mind, by keeping it in continual action, that it will and must rest somewhere; and if so, our inquiry ought to be where it may rest most securely and comfortably to itself, and with most advantage to others.

"in the uncertainty of opinions, wisdom would counsel us to adopt those which have a tendency to produce beneficial actions."

independence of mind on life as arising out of the idea

that life was superadded to organization—his disposition

to allegory.

"if i may be allowed to express myself allegorically with regard to our intellectual operations, i would say that the mind chooses for itself some little spot or district, where it erects a dwelling, which it furnishes and decorates with the various materials it collects. of many apartments contained in it, there is one to which it is most partial, where it chiefly reposes, and where it sometimes indulges its visionary fancies. at the same201 time, it employs itself in cultivating the surrounding grounds, raising little articles for intellectual traffic with its neighbours, or perhaps some produce worthy to be deposited amongst the general stores of human knowledge. thus my mind rests at peace in thinking on the subject of life, as it has been taught by mr. hunter; and i am visionary enough to imagine that if these opinions should become so established as to be generally admitted by philosophers, that if they once saw reason to believe that life was something of an invisible and active nature superadded to organization, they would then see equal reason to believe that mind might be superadded to life, as life is to structure. they would then, indeed, still further perceive how mind and matter might reciprocally operate on each other by means of an intervening substance. thus, even, would physiological researches enforce the belief which i say is natural to man: that, in addition to his bodily frame, he possesses a sensitive, intelligent, and independent mind—an opinion which tends in an eminent degree to produce virtuous, honourable, and useful actions45."

attractions of physiology—the necessity of examining

both health and disease a very important point just

now, as testing the validity of certain views of liebig

and others.

"no study can surely be so interesting as physiology. whilst other sciences carry us abroad in search of objects, in this we are engaged at home, and on concerns highly important to us, in inquiring into the means by which 'we live, and move, and have our being.' to those, however, engaged in the practice of medicine, the study of physiology is indispensable; for it is evident that the nature of the disordered actions of parts or organs can never be understood or judiciously counteracted,202 unless the nature of their healthy actions be previously known.

"the study of physiology, however, not only requires that we should investigate the nature of the various vital processes carried on in our own bodies, but also that we should compare them with similar processes in all the varieties of living beings; not only that we should consider them in a state of natural and healthy action, but also under all the varying circumstances of disorder and disease. few indeed have studied physiology thus extensively, and none in an equal degree with mr. hunter. whoever attentively peruses his writings, must, i think, perceive that he draws his crowds of facts from such different and remote sources, as to make it extremely difficult to assemble and arrange them46."

of disorder and disease.

"disorder, which is the effect of faulty actions of nerves, induces disease, which is the consequence of faulty actions of the vessels. there are some who find it difficult to understand how similar swellings or ulcers may form in various parts of the body in consequence of general nervous disorder, and are all curable by appeasing and removing such general disorder. the fact is indisputable. such persons are not so much surprised that general nervous disorder should produce local effects in the nervous and muscular systems; yet they cannot so well understand how it should locally affect the vascular system. to me there appears nothing wonderful in such events; for the local affection is primarily nervous, and the vascular actions are consequent. yet it must indeed be granted that there may be other circumstances leading to the peculiarities of local diseases, with which, at present, we are unacquainted. disorder excites to disease, and when important organs become in a degree diseased,203 they will still perform their functions moderately well, if disorder be relieved, which ought to be the alpha and omega of medical attention47."

as we have seen, in the early part of our narrative, he was one of the first to insist on the importance of comparative anatomy and physiology, and, as we shall have to relate, most active in securing what has proved so greatly influential to its progress in this country (the appointment of professor owen). yet he modestly ignores any positive pretensions which might be imputed to him from his endeavour to illustrate a museum dealing so largely with comparative anatomy.

"gratitude to the former of the museum, and also to the donors to it, equally demand that its value and excellency should be publicly acknowledged and displayed, which consideration has goaded me on to undertake and imperfectly execute a task for which i feel myself not properly qualified."

here follows what is very candid in abernethy, and honourable to mr. clift, who had very many debtors who were less communicative.

"i cordially acknowledge that i have little acquaintance with the subject, except what i derived from looking over the preparations in the museum, from reading professor cuvier's lectures, and from the frank and friendly communications of our204 highly praiseworthy conservator, mr. clift. permit me to say, gentlemen, though many know it already, that mr. clift resided with mr. hunter, and was taught by him to exhibit anatomical facts in preparations,—that he does credit to his excellent instructor,—that he feels the same interest and zeal that his patron did for the improvement of this department of science,—and that he possesses the same candour and simplicity of character48."

of deep and superficial thinking.

"i now beg leave to add that there are many who think clearly, who do not think deeply; and they have greatly the advantage in expressing themselves, for their thoughts are generally simple and easy of apprehension. opinions immediately deduced from any series or assemblage of facts may be called primary opinions, and they become types and representatives of the facts from which they are formed, and, like the facts themselves, admit of assortment, comparison, and inference; so that from them we deduce ulterior opinions, till at length, by a kind of intellectual calculation, we obtain some general total, which in like manner becomes the representative and co-efficient of all our knowledge, with relation to the subject examined and considered.

"in proportion to the pains we have taken in this algebraical process of the mind, and our assurance of its correctness, so do we contemplate the conclusion or consummation of our labours with satisfaction49."

characteristic of his inclination to the law.

"gentlemen (of the jury), i trust i can prove to your perfect conviction, by ample and incontrovertible evidence, that my205 client (john hunter) died seized and possessed of very considerable literary property, the hard-earned gainings of great talent and unparalleled industry. it is not, however, for the property that i plead; because already that is secured; it is fenced in; land-marks are set up; it is registered in public documents. i plead only for the restitution of a great and accumulated income of reputation derivable from that property, which, i trust, you will perceive to be justly due, and will consequently award to my client, and his country50."

of mr. hunter—progress of his mind, etc.

"believing that no man will labour in the strenuous and unremitting manner that mr. hunter did, and to the detriment of his own private interest, without some strong incentive; i have supposed that at an early period he conceived those notions of life which were confirmed by his future inquiries and experiments. he began his observations on the incubated egg, in the year 1755, which must either have suggested or corroborated all his opinions with regard to the cause of the vital phenomena. he perceived that, however different in form and faculty, every creature was nevertheless allied to himself, because it was a living being; and therefore he became solicitous to inquire how the vital processes were carried on in all the varieties of animal and even vegetable existence."

of genius and judgment.

"in the progress of science, genius with light and airy steps often far precedes judgment, which proceeds slowly, and either finds or forms a road along which all may proceed with facility206 and security; but the direction of the course of judgment is often suggested, and its actions are excited and accelerated, by the invocations of preceding genius51."

reiteration of the denial that he identified life with

electricity.

"as sir h. davy's experiments fully prove that electricity may be superadded to, and that it enters into, the composition of all those substances we call matter, i felt satisfied with the establishment of the philosophy of mr. hunter's views, nor thought it necessary to proceed further, but merely added: 'it is not meant to be affirmed that electricity is life.' i only mean to argue in favour of mr. hunter's theory, by showing that a subtile substance of a quickly and powerfully mobile nature seems to pervade everything, and appears to be the life of the world; and that therefore it is probable a similar substance pervades organized bodies, and is the life of these bodies. i am concerned, yet obliged, to detain you by this recapitulation, because my meaning has been either misunderstood or misrepresented52."

chemistry of life.

"he (mr. hunter) told us that life was a great chemist, and, even in a seemingly quiescent state, had the power of resisting the operations of external chemical agency, and thereby preventing the decomposition of those bodies in which it resided. thus seeds may lie buried far beneath the surface of the earth for a great length of time without decaying, but being thrown up, they vegetate. mr. hunter showed us that this207 chemist, 'life,' had the power of regulating the temperature of the substances in which it resides53."

interesting; also significant in regard to what are probably

the real sources of animal heat, and in relation

to the lungs, which we have contended are refrigerating

and not heating organs.

"the progress of science since mr. hunter's time has wonderfully manifested that the beam, when dissected by a prism, is not only separable into seven calorific rays of different refrangibility, producing the iridescent spectrum, but also into calorific rays refracted in the greatest degree or intensity beyond the red colour, and into rays not calorific, refracted in like manner, to the opposite side of the spectrum beyond the violet colour; and that the calorific and uncalorific rays produce effects similar to those occasioned by the two kinds of electricity; and thus afforded additional reasons for believing that subtile, mobile substances do enter into the composition of all those bodies which the sun illumines, or its beams can penetrate.

"late observations induce the belief that even light may be incorporated in a latent state with animal substances and afterwards elicited by a kind of spontaneous separation by vital actions, or by causes that seem to act mechanically on the substance in which it inheres. all the late discoveries in science seem to realize the speculations of ancient philosophers, and show that all the changes and motions which occur in surrounding bodies, as well as those in which we live, are the effect of subtile and invisible principles existing in them, or acting on them. mr. ellis, who, with such great industry and intelligence, has collated all the scattered evidences relative to the production of heat in living bodies, and added so much to the collected knowledge, seems to think that all the variations of208 temperature in them may be accounted for by known chemical processes.

"here, however, i must observe, that mr. hunter's opinion of life having the power of regulating temperature was deduced, not only from his own experiments, related in the 'philosophical transactions,' but also from observing, that, in certain affections of the stomach, the heat of the body is subject to great vicissitudes, whilst respiration and circulation remain unaltered; and also that parts of the body are subject to similar variations, which appear inexplicable upon any other supposition than that of local nervous excitement, or torpor, or some similar affections of the vital powers of the part which undergoes such transitions54."

alleged tendencies of a belief in the independent

nature of mind.

"it is equally apparent that the belief of the distinct and independent nature of mind incites us to act rightly from principle; to relieve distress, to repel aggression, and defend those who are incapable of protecting themselves; to practise and extol whatever is virtuous, excellent, and honourable; to shun and condemn whatever is vicious and base, regardless also of our own personal feelings and interests when put in competition with our duty55."

of phrenology.

"there is nothing in the assertions of drs. gall and spurzheim contradictory to the results of general observation and experience. it is admitted that the superior intellectual209 faculties can and ought to control the inferior propensities. it is admitted that we possess organs, which, nevertheless, may be inactive from general torpor or want of education. general observation and experience proclaim that susceptibility is the chief incentive to action, that it is the source of genius; and that the character of the man greatly depends on his education and habits. we educate our faculties; what is at first accomplished with difficulty, by repetition is easily performed, and becomes more perfect and established by habit. trains of perceptions and thoughts also become firmly concentrated, and occur in succession. even our feelings undergo the same kind of education and establishment. casual feelings of goodwill by repetition strengthen and produce lasting friendships; whilst trivial sensations of disgust, in like manner, may occasion inveterate hatred."

on the same.

"should the result of our general inquiries, or attention to the subjects proposed to us by drs. gall and spurzheim, induce us to believe that the peculiarities of our feelings and faculties were the effects of variety of excitement, transmitted through a diversity of organization, they would tend to produce mutual forbearance and toleration. we should perceive how nearly impossible it must be that any persons should think and feel exactly alike upon any subject. we should not arrogantly pride ourselves on our own virtue and knowledge, nor condemn the errors and weakness of others, since they may depend upon causes which we can neither produce nor readily counteract. the path of virtue is plain and direct, and its object distinctly before us; so that no one can miss either, who has resolution enough never to lose sight of them, by adverting to advantages and allurements with which he may be presented on the one hand, or the menacings with which he may be assailed on the other. yet no one, judging from his own feelings and powers, can be210 aware of the kind and degree of temptation or terror, or the seeming incapacity to resist them, which may have induced others to deviate. now, though from the foregoing considerations i am pleased with the speculations of drs. gall and spurzheim, i am quite incompetent to give any opinion as to the probability of what they have suggested; because i see no mode by which we can with propriety admit or reject their assertions, except by pursuing the same course of investigations which they themselves have followed; a task of great labour and difficulty, and one which, for various reasons, i should feel great repugnance to undertake56."

abernethy used to like very well to talk with spurzheim, who resided for some time in this country. one day, abernethy, half-seriously, half-humorously said to spurzheim: "well, doctor, where do you place the organ of common sense?" spurzheim's reply certainly sustained the coincidence of phrenological deductions with those of experience. "there is no organ," said he, "for common sense, but it depends on the equilibrium of the other organs."

theological application of anatomical facts.

"therefore, from this least interesting part of anatomy, we derive the strongest conviction of there being design and contrivance in the construction of animals. equal evidences of design and contrivance and of adaptation of means to ends may be observed in the construction of the framework, as i may call it, of other animals, as in that of man, which subject seems to me very happily displayed in professor cuvier's lectures57.

"it was, however, the comparing the mechanism of the hand211 and foot that led galen, who they say was a sceptic in his youth, to the public declaration of his opinion that intelligence must have operated in ordaining the laws by which living beings are constructed. that galen was a man of a very superior intellect could readily be proved, were it necessary. i have often known the passage i allude to made a subject of reference, but not of quotation, and therefore i recite it on the present occasion, and particularly because it shows that galen was not in the least degree tinctured with superstition. 'in explaining these things,' he says, 'i esteem myself as composing a solemn hymn to the great architect of our bodily frame, in which i think there is more true piety than in sacrificing whole hecatombs of oxen, or in burning the most costly perfumes; for, first, i endeavour from his works to know him myself, and afterwards by the same means to show him to others, to inform them how great is his wisdom, goodness, and power58.'"

distinctive character of living bodies.

"those bodies which we call living are chiefly characterized by their powers of converting surrounding substances into their own nature, of building up the structure of their own bodies, and repairing the injuries they may accidentally sustain59."

in repudiation of cruelty and experiments on animals.

very important in our view. the objection was very new at that time, and has made very little way yet. we have already referred to this subject. considering the period of these lectures (nearly forty years ago), abernethy's objections,212 though cautious, are very sound, and, for him, very positive. we know that he felt still more strongly.

"mr. hunter, whom i should not have believed to be very scrupulous about inflicting sufferings upon animals, nevertheless censures spalanzani for the unmeaning repetition of similar experiments. having resolved publicly to express my own opinion with respect to this subject, i choose the present opportunity to do it, because i believe spalanzani to have been one of those who have tortured and destroyed animals in vain. i do not perceive that in the two principal subjects which he sought to elucidate, he has added any important fact to our stock of knowledge; besides, some of his experiments are of a nature that a good man would have blushed to think of, and a wise man ashamed to publish, for they prove no fact requiring to be proved, and only show that the aforesaid abbé was a filthy-minded fellow."

on the same.

"the design of experiments is to interrogate nature; and surely the inquirer ought to make himself acquainted with the language of nature, and take care to propose pertinent questions. he ought further to consider the probable kind of replies that may be made to his inquiries, and the inferences that may be warranted in drawing from different responses, so as to be able to determine whether, by the commission of cruelty, he is likely to obtain adequate instruction. indeed, before we make experiments on sensitive beings, we ought further to consider whether the information we seek may not be attainable by other means. i am aware of the advantages which have been derived from such experiments when made by persons of talent, and who have properly prepared themselves; but i know that these experiments tend to harden the feelings which often lead to the inconsiderate performance of them.

"surely we should endeavour to foster, and not stifle, benevolence,213 the best sentiment of our nature, that which is productive of the greatest gratification both to its possessor and to others. considering the professors in this place as the organs of the court of the college, addressing its members, i feel that i act as becomes a senior of this institution, whilst admitting the propriety of the practice under the foregoing restrictions, i, at the same time, express an earnest hope that the character of an english surgeon may never be tarnished by the commission of inconsiderate or unnecessary cruelty60."

a very early excellence of abernethy: exceedingly necessary

at one time in relation to the erroneous

notions on which anatomical investigations were conducted;

advancing science has fully confirmed the

justice and good sense of his remarks.

"to me, however, who confide more in the eye of reason than in that of sense, and would rather form opinions from analogy than from the imperfect evidence of sight, it seems too hasty an inference to conclude that, in the minute animals, there are no vessels nor other organization because we cannot see them, or that polypes are actually devoid of vessels, and merely of the structure described, because we can discern no other. were it, however, really so, such facts would then only show with how little and with what various organization life could accomplish its principal functions of assimilation, formation, and multiplication. who has seen the multitudinous distribution of absorbing vessels, and all the other organization, which doubtless exists in the vitreous humour of the eye, than which no glass ever appeared more transparent or more seemingly inorganic61? how strange is it that anatomists, above all other members of the community of science, should hesitate to admit the existence of what they cannot discern, since they, more214 than all the rest, have such constant assurance of the imperfection and fallibility of sight62?"

reiteration of an important axiom, quite necessary at

this time to the chemical physiologists.

"our physiological theories should be adequate to account for all the vital phenomena both in health and disorder, or they can never be maintained as good theories63."

of respiration. cautious reasoning. had all reasoned

thus, we might have escaped much unsound theorizing

on this important process.

"chemists have considered the change as contributory to the production of animal heat, which opinion may, indeed, be true, though the manner in which it produces such an effect has not, as yet, been explained. mr. hunter, who believed that life had the power of regulating temperature, independently of respiration, says nothing of that process as directly contributing to such an effect. he says: 'breathing seems to render life to the blood, and the blood conveys it to every part of the body,' yet he believes the blood derives its vitality also from the food. i am at a loss to know what chemists now think respecting heat, whether they consider it to be a distinct species of matter, or mere motion and vibration. among the curious revolutions which this age has produced, those of chemical opinions have a fair claim to distinction. to show which, i may add, that a lady64, on her first marriage, was wedded to that scientific champion who first overthrew phlogiston, and215 established, in its stead, the empire of caloric; and after his decease, on her second nuptials, was united to the man who vainly supposed he had subverted the rule of caloric and restored the ancient but long-banished dynasty of motion and vibration. in this state of perplexity, i cannot, with prudence or probable security, advance one step further than mr. hunter has led me. i must believe respiration to be essential to life, and that life has the power, by its actions, of maintaining and regulating temperature65."

characteristic, both as to illustration and moral

bearing.

"those of the medical profession must readily accord with the remark of shakspeare, that such affections (disturbed states of the nervous system) which may well indeed be called 'master passions,' sway us to their mood in what we like or loathe. for we well know that our patients and ourselves, from disturbance of the nervous functions of the digestive organs, producing such affections of the brain, may become irritable, petulant, and violent about trifles, or oppressed, morose, and desponding. permit me, however, to add that those of the medical profession must be equally apprized that when the functions of the mind are not disturbed by such affections, it displays great energy of thought, and evidence of established character, even in death. have we not lately heard that the last words of nelson were: 'tell collingwood to bring the fleet to an anchor?' shakspeare has also represented mercutio continuing to jest, though he was mortally wounded; the expiring hotspur thinking of nothing but honour, and the dying falstaff cracking his jokes on bardolph's nose. i request you to excuse this digression, which i have been induced to make, from perceiving that, if such facts were duly attended to, they would216 prompt us to a more liberal allowance for each other's conduct, under certain circumstances, than we are accustomed to do; and also incite us to the more active and constant performance of the great business of human life—the education of the mind; for, according to its knowledge and dispositions, do we possess the ability of contributing to our own welfare and comfort, and that of others."