louis xii. succeeds to the throne of france—his bargain with the pope—caesar prepares to go to france—he renounces his cardinalate—he arrives in avignon, where he meets cardinal giuliano della rovere—louis xii. and caesar meet—caesar’s entry into chinon—duke of valentinois—caesar’s shrewdness—charlotte d’albret—her marriage to caesar—the projected conquest of milan—ludovico il moro—the french army invades italy—caesar leaves france—he enters milan with louis xii.
charles viii. died april 7, 1498, and was succeeded by louis xii., who was endeavouring to secure from the pope the necessary dispensation to enable him to repudiate his wife jeanne and marry his predecessor’s widow, queen anne, whose dowry would include the duchy of bretagne.
the pope, with his usual clairvoyance with respect to his personal interests, immediately saw an opportunity to profit by the circumstances, and he made a bargain by which, in return for his dispensation, the king agreed to bestow the county of valence—which was to be raised to a duchy—upon caesar, who was to renounce his cardinalate. the king also promised to find him a princess for wife. the cardinal of valencia was thus to become the duke of valentinois. the king also agreed to give him a pension of twenty thousand livres—a great sum for those days—and also to maintain a company of one hundred men-at-arms for him. the bargain also included a cardinal’s hat for the king’s prime minister, georges d’amboise, bishop of rouen, who was always careful not to overlook his own interests.
lvigi xii·re di francia
louis xii. of france.
from an early engraving.
to face p. 122.
123 in addition the pope and the king entered into an alliance, offensive and defensive, the holy father agreeing to assist the king in the conquest of the regno, and louis promising to aid alexander to reduce the rebellious lords in the romagna and to re-establish the integrity of the papal domain. thus did sovereigns play fast and loose with human destinies. this vast intrigue developed during the first eight months of the year 1498; and august 17th, in a secret consistory, caesar asked for a special dispensation to enable him to resign his ecclesiastical offices and again become a layman in order that he might marry. on the pope’s promise that all the offices and benefices his son had enjoyed should revert to the sacred college, the cardinals promptly consented to the dispensation. the same day louis de villeneuve, baron of trans, representing louis xii., arrived in rome for the purpose of escorting caesar to france.
sure of the cardinals’ consent, everything had been arranged in advance for caesar’s departure, even those who were to accompany him had been selected. his gorgeous wardrobe, which set all rome to talking, had been prepared. the baron of trans had brought the patents of caesar’s new domain, and, accompanied by a numerous retinue, they set out for ostia october 1st “for the purpose of going to france by sea, and,” burchard adds, “i heard that he had a vast amount of money124 with him and that several of his horses were shod with silver.” the new duke took with him 200,000 gold ducats, confiscated shortly before from pedro de aranda, bishop of calahorra, who had recently—most opportunely—been convicted on the charge of heresy—alexander vi. always endeavoured to pluck his victims and compass his iniquities strictly in accordance with the forms of law. three hundred jews and usurers, found guilty of various offences, had been imprisoned, but their terms were commuted into heavy fines, the money going to swell caesar’s exchequer.
louis xii. had promised to send a fleet of several vessels to ostia to conduct him to france, and it was expected about the end of august, but it did not arrive until october 27th, when the new duke embarked with a hundred pages, servants, equerries, and retainers. besides his horses he had fifty mules and wagons to carry his personal effects.
in his suite were his secretary, agapito, the famous spanish physician, gaspare torrella, and his majordomo, remiro de lorca, whom he subsequently had beheaded in cesena for fraudulent and oppressive acts as governor of that place.
six days were required to make the voyage to marseilles, where caesar was received upon the quay by the archbishop of dijon. thence they went to avignon, where the duke met giuliano della rovere, the implacable enemy of his family, who was compelled in consequence of his quarrel with them to live abroad, and who was then residing at the court of france, although since august, when ostia had been restored to the cardinal, they125 had been on somewhat better terms. a month before caesar’s departure for marseilles the pope had written the cardinal san pietro ad vincola recommending caesar to him, and della rovere had replied in the friendliest manner. in one of his letters to the pope he said: “i cannot refrain from telling you that the duke of valence is so modest, sensible, and capable, and endowed with such fine qualities, both mental and physical, that every one is charmed by him. he is in high favour at court and with the king. all love and esteem him; it gives me real pleasure to say this.”
in cunning and duplicity della rovere was a match for borgia, and he was waiting for a more favourable opportunity to destroy his enemy.
from avignon caesar went to valence, the capital of his duchy, but he declined to accept the honours which were offered him until he was formally placed in possession of his state. almost immediately on his arrival there a royal messenger appeared and in the king’s name presented him with the order of st. michael—an honour at that time reserved for princes of the blood and the great nobles of the kingdom—but caesar declared he would accept it only from the hands of the sovereign.
benoit maillard, prior of the abbey of savigny, records caesar’s arrival in lyons in november “with great magnificence in his apparel and trappings.” the 7th of the month an extraordinary banquet was given for valentinois, and the account of the expenditures throws a curious light on the manners of the day. the list of viands is astonishing: 28 capons, 168 white partridges,126 24 red ones, 192 ducks, 420 turtle-doves, 36 wood-cock, 144 peafowl, 120 pheasants, a round of veal, a quarter of beef, 150 pounds of lard, oranges, vanilla, 2 goneaux, 18 quince pies, 18 english tarts, 18 bride faveaulx, 18 platters of minced meat fritters, 18 platters of foub, 18 platters of lambs’ tongues in aspic, 18 platters of mestier, 18 patés of capon, 18 patés of lark, 18 cream cakes, almonds, eggs, rose-water, suet, quantities of cinnamon, candied orange-peel, annis, pignons, colliander-seed, mandrians, sugar-plums seasoned with musk, hippocras, ginger, nutmegs, cloves, sugar, malmsey, muscat, grapes, plums, dates, pomegranates, &c.—truly a gargantuan feast.
caesar finally met the king at chinon, december 18th. louis did not wish to treat caesar as the son of a sovereign, but at the same time did not want to incur the pope’s enmity by offending him; he therefore hit upon the ingenious expedient of meeting caesar by chance—under pretext of going to the chase—about two leagues from the city gates. there he greeted him warmly, even treating him familiarly, but did not accompany him to the city, where he was met by the cardinal of rouen and a brilliant escort representing the king.
brant?me gives a detailed account of caesar’s entry into chinon.19 the sieur de bourdeille says he found the account among his family papers written in rather crude verse, and that he rewrote it in prose—au plus clair et net langage.
“first came m. the cardinal of rouen, m. de127 ravastain, m. the seneschal of toulouse, and m. de clermont, who together with many lords and gentlemen of the court accompanied the duke on his entry as far as the end of the bridge. then there were eighty-four very beautiful mules laden with trunks and chests covered with red cloth with the arms and escutcheon of the said duke. then came twenty-four more mules with trappings of red and yellow, the livery of the king, for these were his colours; then followed twelve mules covered with striped yellow satin. then came ten mules covered with cloth of gold in stripes, first one smooth and then one wavy.
“when all had passed the bridge they went to the castle.
“then came sixteen magnificent coursers covered with red and yellow cloth of gold, each led by a groom, and with turkish bridles. these were followed by eighteen pages each mounted on a handsome steed, and sixteen of them were clad in crimson velvet and the other two in crinkled cloth of gold. then followed six lackeys, according to the custom of the day, leading six beautiful mules harnessed and with saddle and bridle, and with trappings of crimson velvet, and the lackeys were clothed with the same.
“then came two mules bearing coffers on their backs and all were covered with cloth of gold—and the people in the crowd said that these contained something more exquisite than all the others—rich and precious stones for his mistress, and for others—perhaps some bulls and fine indulgences from rome, or perhaps some holy relics, said others. then came thirty gentlemen clothed in cloth of128 gold and silver—but there were not enough of these, said the court; in view of the large number that had preceded them there should have been at least a hundred, or a hundred and twenty clad in the french or danish fashion.
“then followed three musicians, two small drums and a violin—which were at this time in great favour—just as the great lords of germany and generals of armies now have them when on the march. the two drummers above mentioned were clad in cloth of gold and their instruments were of silver and were provided with great chains of gold and the said musicians went before the gentlemen named above and the duke of valentinois, playing their instruments the while.
“then came four trumpets or clarions of silver, the musicians being richly dressed and playing continually. these were followed by eighty lackeys clad in crimson velvet and yellow silk, who surrounded the duke and m. the cardinal of rouen, who was conversing with him.
“as to the duke himself he was mounted upon a magnificent charger richly accoutred with a robe of red satin and cloth of gold, with a border of precious stones and pearls.
“on his bonnet were five or six rubies as large as beans which flashed most brilliantly; on his cuffs were great quantities of precious stones and even his boots were covered with gold and gems.
‘et un collier, pour en dire le cas, qui valoit bien trente mille ducats,’
so says the rhyme.
“the horse which he rode was covered with129 gold and jewels with pearls and precious stones galore.
“in addition he had a beautiful little mule to ride about the city; and its harness, saddle, bridle, and brest band were covered with rosettes of fine gold as thick as one’s finger.
“bringing up the rear there were eighty mules more, with red trappings and the arms of the said duke and also a great number of wagons laden with other necessities such as camp beds, utensils, &c.
‘ainsi entra, pour avoir bruict et nom, ledict seigneur au chasteau de chinon,’
“the king was at a window watching his arrival and there is no doubt that he and his courtiers made merry over him and said that it was too much for a little duke of valence.”
the chateau of chinon had been selected for the duke’s residence and there the king, accompanied by cardinal giuliano della rovere, called upon him. when the duke was about to kneel the king restrained him; a few words were exchanged and then the cardinal of rouen informed his majesty that monseigneur, the duke, had not yet dined, whereupon the king replied: “very well, then let his highness go to dinner”—thus ending the interview; louis evidently was bored and not greatly impressed. after dinner the king received caesar and the following day they took a walk together. a few days later the king went to nantes to meet the queen and the marriage was celebrated. caesar’s fopperies and extravagance in dress caused general amusement and disgust and the king and130 his courtiers ridiculed the “vain glory and stupid pomposity of this little duke of valentinois.” louis, however, wished to use caesar in his schemes, consequently he was careful not to offend him.
the duke had brought the king a letter from the pope in which he said: “in order that your majesty may see how great is our desire to please you in all things we are sending you our heart, that is our beloved son, the duke of valentinois, and we beseech your majesty to treat him in such a way that all may know how dear this caesar, whom i entrust to your kingly good faith, has become to you in all ways.”
thus far but one of the articles of the agreement between the pope and the king had been carried out. by letters patent, dated august 13, 1498, caesar had been created duke of valentinois and he had been received as such at the court of france. the negotiations, however, which were intended eventually to make him the heir to a crown had failed. louis had undertaken to secure the marriage of caesar and carlotta of aragon, daughter of the king of naples, but frederic opposed it and the young woman herself absolutely refused to consent to the union.
the brilliant entry into chinon therefore was a fiasco, as giuliano della rovere, in a letter dated january 18, 1499, informed the pope, who shortly after complained to the cardinal that the king had exposed him to ridicule, as it was known everywhere that caesar had gone to france expressly to marry.
caesar, however, had displayed the astuteness and cunning that never deserted him, for when131 obstacles began to be interposed in the way of marrying carlotta he pretended that he did not have the dispensation permitting louis xii. to marry anne of bretagne.
the king, however, had been informed by the pope himself that the dispensation had been granted, consequently he had proceeded with his plans and the decree of divorce had been obtained.
the political interests of the king of france in italy were, however, more important than the purely personal question of his marriage with the widow of charles viii.; consequently it was greatly to his interest to find some way to gratify the pope’s wishes, therefore he made another effort to overcome the opposition of frederic and his daughter, but in vain. louis thereupon decided to substitute his own niece, the daughter of the count de foix, but she, too, declined.
caesar, however, treated the matter in a cavalier manner, saying that if the king of naples would have none of him because he was a natural son, frederic himself was also illegitimate, merely a king’s bastard, while he himself—and he was proud of it—was the bastard of a pope!
among the demoiselles who had come from various parts of france to acquire the graces of the polished court of the queen was charlotte d’albret, sister of jean d’albret, king of navarre, and daughter of alain, duke of guyenne. while charlotte was still a child she had been placed under the care of anne of bretagne, and she had grown into a beautiful young woman, gracious and intelligent, and louis decided to endeavour to bring about a union between her and caesar. alain,132 the father, looked with little favour upon the proposed marriage, but the political interests of the house of navarre were such that he decided to consent, provided, of course, he could drive a good bargain—for in the days of chivalry fair women were exceedingly valuable pieces in the great game of politics. throughout the negotiations charlotte’s father showed himself to be cold, calculating, avaricious, and suspicious, but as louis felt that everything depended upon securing a wife for caesar, and as he himself was anxious to set out for italy he granted all of alain’s demands. the negotiations were protracted, almost interminable, but finally the marriage contract was drawn up at the chateau of blois, may 10, 1499, in the presence of the king, queen anne, the cardinal d’amboise, chancellor of france, the archbishop of sens, the proxies of the duke of guyenne, and numerous other dignitaries. by its terms alain d’albret was to give his daughter a dowry of 30,000 livres tournois. the marriage was celebrated may 12, 1499, and the bride was said to be the most beautiful woman of france, while caesar was described as possessing fine features and a most elegant bearing; one writer said that, like the emperor tiberius, he was the handsomest man of his century. charlotte d’albret must have known that the marriage was purely a political one. burchard records that may 23rd a courier arrived from france with a letter to the pope from caesar in which he made a brutal confession with regard to his wife.
charlotte wrote the pope expressing filial devotion and a desire to come to rome to make his133 acquaintance—and she added that she was very much pleased with her new spouse.
alain’s daughter was the sacrifice and alexander vi. and louis xii. were to reap the benefits. among the documents containing the negotiations with alain d’albret are some which clearly reveal their plans.
the treaty made by the pope and the king has often been published; but the one under discussion when they were endeavouring to bring about a marriage between caesar and king frederic’s daughter had never been printed until m. yriarte reproduced20 the entire document as an example of the duplicity which then marked all political transactions—and, it might be added, which continues to characterise them.
“minutes of an agreement between our holy father, the pope alexander vi. and the most christian king:—
“1. in order that the pope may appreciate the love which the king bears toward him and his, the said lord promises his holiness to marry mgr. de valence to the eldest daughter of don frederic, with her express consent, the said daughter being with the queen.
“2. in order that the said seigneur of valence may have the necessary means for maintaining his proper estate the king will give him, for himself and his heirs in perpetuity, the county of valence and diois which is estimated to be worth twenty thousand francs a year; and in case it should not prove to be worth the sum named the king will furnish him from some other source enough to make134 up the said sum, and as the brothers of the said sieur de valence are dukes and princes the king will raise the said county into a duchy.
“3. he will give to the said seigneur de valence one hundred lances, maintained by france, both in time of war and in peace, for carrying on his projects in italy and elsewhere. the king will increase this number with two or three hundred lances whenever it should seem to him to be for the best.
“4. he will give the said seigneur de valence an annual pension of twenty thousand francs for his personal expenses.
“5. in case that the said king recovers his duchy of milan he will give the said seigneur de valence his county of asti for him and his, to hold under the king in loyalty and homage.
“item. he will give the said seigneur de valence his order of st. michael; and in order that the king may be satisfied of the good will of our holy father, his holiness will place the said sieur de valence in his service and will have him marry the person selected. to conduct the affair more secretly and surely the king will, by the middle of august, place six vessels in order in the port of ciotat, bishopric of aix, to bring the said sieur de valence and the legate whom the pope shall select to perform the requirements of the king. item because ... runs danger by the absence of mgr. de valence the king will send the pope a thousand men for his guard during his absence for which the king will pay each month four thousand ducats which shall be paid the pope secretly by mgr. the cardinal of st. denis, who is in rome,135 and this engagement shall be for three or four months.
“and in case the holy father should feel that this confederation and agreement of perpetual friendship was endangered by any prince of the league the king will give him letters patent signed with his hand and sealed with his seal by which he will promise and swear to god and the virgin mary to defend, guard, and protect his holiness in temporal as well as spiritual affairs.
“item. regarding the kingdom of naples whatever the king may do, the said seigneur promises to do nothing and determine upon nothing except by the hand of his holiness.
“item. he will have our seigneurs the cardinals ad vincula and gurk return to rome and the pope agrees to treat them with all friendliness and gentleness as his good brothers, of which the king shall assure them, at the same time exhorting them to obey and respect our holy father.
“all of which the king promises on his word as king to maintain, observe, and keep, and in whatever concerns the estate of mgr. de valence regarding the said counties he will have the same ratified and agreed to by the chamber of accounts.
“and so far as the other articles are concerned the king will give the bishop of cette and the archdeacon of chalais such private letters as the pope may wish and which will be sent with the memorandum, &c., &c.”
when news reached rome that caesar had received the coveted order of st. michael from the king there was a great celebration in the city and bonfires were lighted by order of the pope136 before the palaces of cardinals orsini and st. dionysius and also before that of lucretia; the evening of may 23rd the spaniards indulged in an orgy which burchard says was a disgrace to the pope and the holy see.
from the secret agreement it is clear that the conquest of milan and the expedition against naples had been decided upon. the king of france, now sure of the pope and caesar, signed a treaty of alliance, both offensive and defensive, with venice april 15, 1499, which was directed against all the italian princes. the negotiations had been kept secret from ludovico il moro; that prince sans foi et sans loi, whose destruction was determined upon, was the last to learn of it. the price the venetians demanded for joining the league was the cities of cremona and chiari. although the duke of savoy was in accord with louis xii. he did not formally join the alliance.
ludovico il moro was the most hated man in italy: he had betrayed florence, venice, and the king of france one after the other; without regard to the other powers of italy he had treated with charles viii. when the french first descended into the peninsula. consequently when he was again threatened he found himself without friend or ally.
louis’s pretensions to milan were based, not only on his inheritance of the rights of charles viii. but also on the claims of his grandmother, valentina visconti, and as he was also determined to recover naples he was wise in securing a strong place in the north. before attempting the conquest of milan louis renewed the treaties of charles viii. with his neighbours. the duke of savoy gave him permission to pass through his territory and promised him troops; in return for venice’s assistance louis agreed to give her the two places she had demanded; the pope and caesar had already been paid.
ludovico sforza.
from the woodcut in antonio campo’s “istoria di cremona.”
to face p. 136.
137 the king dispatched his armies to italy under the command of louis de ligny and the count d’aubigny but did not immediately go himself.
ludovico il moro was attacked simultaneously by the french and the venetians, and as his own people hated him and his governors proved false, he lost all his cities one by one and was reduced to the last extremity and finally compelled to make his escape to germany. when the gascon archers entered milan, october 2, 1499, they shot his statue—the work of leonardo da vinci—to pieces with their arrows.
caesar was still in france but was preparing to come to italy; before leaving he gave his wife a power of attorney to enable her to act as administrator of his new possessions, the duchy of valentinois, the county of diois, and all his seignories and property in the kingdom of france, and in dauphiné.
valentinois had lived with his wife from the last of april until september, and early in 1500 charlotte bore him a daughter, who was christened louise and who was destined never to know her father. the duchess of valentinois never saw caesar again.
valentino may have returned to italy with the king of france, for the chronicler jean d’auton records that the duke was among the great lords who accompanied louis xii. when he entered138 milan, sunday, october 6, 1499.21 the cardinals delia rovere and amboise were also present, together with the dukes of savoy and ferrara, the marquis of mantua, the ambassadors of genoa, florence, pisa, siena, and bologna, and innumerable other high dignitaries. baldessare castiglione, who accompanied the marquis of mantua, describes valentinois as molte galante. a month later when louis xii. set out to return to france, having left the government of the conquered duchy to trivulzio, he directed two of his captains, yves d’allegre and the bailli of dijon to place themselves under valentino’s orders. the former had a company of three hundred lances and the latter four thousand swiss and gascons, while caesar himself had collected a considerable number of men.