the profound impression that has been left upon contemporary thought by the teaching of lester ward and those who have followed him, that woman is the race, has been felt far and wide outside the sphere of those branches of science, whose students he first startled with the thought. his idea is indeed revolutionary as far as our immediate past and our present social arrangements and sex relations are concerned, but is natural, harmonious and self-explanatory if we regard life, the life of our own day, not as standing still, but as in a state of incessant flux and development, and if we are at all concerned to discover the direction whither these changes are driving us. it indeed may well have been that the formal enunciation of the primary importance of woman in the social organism has played its own part in accelerating her rise into her destined lofty position, though in the main, any philosophy can be merely the explanation and the record of an evolution wherein we are little but passive factors.

this much is certain, that the insistent driving home by this school of thinkers of woman, woman, woman, as the center and nucleus whence is developed the child and the home, and all that civilization stands for, and whose rights as an independent human being are therefore to be held of supreme importance in the normal evolution of the race, has served as an incessant reminder to practical workers and reformers in the sphere of education as well as to leaders of the woman movement. especially has this been true when tackling the problems more immediately affecting women, because these are the truly difficult problems. whatever touches man's side of life alone is comparatively simple and easily understood, and therefore easier of solution. so in the rough and ready, often cruel, solutions which nature and humanity have worked out for social problems, it has always been the man whose livelihood, whose education and whose training have been first considered, and whose claims have been first satisfied. for this there are several reasons. man's possession of material wealth, and his consequent monopoly of social and political power have naturally resulted in his attending to his own interests first. the argument, too, that man was the breadwinner and the protector of the home against all outside antagonistic influences, which in the past he has generally been, furnished another reason why, when any class attained to fresh social privileges, it was the boy and the man of that class, rather than the woman and the girl, who benefited by them first. the woman and the girl would come in a poor second, if indeed they were in at the dividing of the spoils at all.

there is, however, another reason, and one of profound significance, which i believe has hardly been touched upon at all, why woman has been thus constantly relegated to the inferior position. her problems are, as i said above, far more difficult of settlement. because of her double function as a member of her own generation and as the potential mother of the next generation, it is impossible to regard her life as something simple and single, and think out plans for its arrangement, as we do with man's. so in large measure we have only been following the line of least resistance, in taking up men's difficulties first. we have done so quite naturally, because they are not so overwhelmingly hard to deal with, and have attacked woman's problems, and striven to satisfy her needs, only when we could find time to get round to them. this is most strikingly exemplified in the realm of education. take the united states alone. it was ever to the boy that increasing educational advantages were first offered.

in the year 1639 the authorities of the town of dorchester, massachusetts, hesitated as to whether girls should be admitted to the apparently just established school. the decision was left "to the discretion of the elders and seven men." the girls lost. in "child life in colonial days" mrs. annie grant is quoted. she spent her girlhood in albany, n.y., sometime during the first half of the eighteenth century. she says it was very difficult at that time to procure the means of instruction in those districts. the girls learned needlework from their mothers and aunts; they learnt to read the bible and religious tracts in dutch; few were taught writing. similar accounts come from virginia.

was it university education that was in question, how many university-trained men had not american colleges turned out before lucy stone was able to obtain admission to oberlin?

harvard was opened in 1636. two hundred years elapsed before there was any institution offering corresponding advantages to girls. oberlin granted its first degree to a woman in 1838. mount holyoke was founded in 1837, elmira in 1855 and vassar in 1865.

that a perfectly honest element of confusion and puzzle did enter into the thought of parents and the views of the community, it would be vain to deny. these young women were incomprehensible. why were they not content with the education their mothers had had, and with the lives their mothers had led before them? why did they want to leave comfortable homes, and face the unknown, the hard, perhaps the dangerous? how inexplicable, how undutiful! ah! it was the young people who were seeing furthest into the future; it was the fathers and mothers who were not recognizing the change that was coming over the world of their day.

if then, for the combination of reasons outlined, women have always lagged in the rear as increasing educational advantages of a literary or professional character have been provided or procured for boys, it is not strange, when, in reading over the records of work on the new lines of industrial education, trade-training and apprenticeship we detect the very same influences at work, sigh before the same difficulties, and recognize the old weary, threadbare arguments, too, which one would surely think had been sufficiently disproved before to be at least distrusted in this connection. this, however, must surely be the very last stand of the non-progressivists in education as regards the worker. the ideals of today aim at education on lines that will enable every child, boy and girl alike, born in or brought into any civilized country, to develop all faculties, and that will simultaneously enable the community to benefit from this complete, all-round development of every one of its members.

there is one consideration to which i must call attention, because, when recognized, it cannot but serve as the utmost stimulus to our efforts to arrange for vocational education for girls on the broadest lines. it is this. whatever general, national or state plans prove the most complete and satisfactory for girls, will, speaking generally, at the same time be found to have solved the problem for the boy as well. the double aim, of equipping the girl to be a mother as well as human being, is so all-inclusive and is therefore so much more difficult of accomplishment, that the simpler training necessary for a boy's career will be automatically provided for at the same time. therefore the boy is not likely to be at a disadvantage under such a coeducational system as is here implied. for it is to nothing short of coeducation that the organized women of the united states are looking forward, coeducation on lines adapted to present-day wants. what further contributions the far-off future may hold for us in the never wholly to be explored realm of human education in its largest acceptance, we know not. until we have learned the lesson of today, and have set about putting it in practice, such glimpses of the future are not vouchsafed to us.

in such an age of transition as ours, any plan of vocational training intended to include girls must be a compromise with warring facts, and will therefore have to face objections from both sides, from those forward-looking ones who feel that the domestic side of woman's activities is overemphasized, and from those who still hark back, who would fain refuse to believe that the majority of women have to be wage-earners for at least part of their lives. these latter argue that by affording to girls all the advantages of industrial training granted or which may be granted to boys, we are "taking them out of the home." as if they were not out of the home already!

this assumption will appear to most readers paradoxical, if indeed it does not read as a contradiction in terms. a little thought, however, will show that it is just because we are all along assuming the economic primacy of the boy, that the girl has been so disastrously neglected. it is true that the boy is also a potential father, and that his training for that lofty function is usually ignored and will have to be borne in mind, though no one would insist that training for fatherhood need occupy a parallel position with training for motherhood. but popular reasoning is not content with accepting this admission; it goes on to draw the wholly unwarranted conclusion that while the boy ought to be thoroughly taught on the wage-earning side, and while such teaching should cover all the more important occupations, to which he is likely to be called, the girl's corresponding training shall as a matter of course be quite a secondary matter, fitting her only for a limited set of pursuits, many of these ranking low in skill and opportunities of advancement, and necessarily among the most poorly paid; these being all occupations which we choose to assume girls will enter, such as sewing or box-making. only recently have girls been prepared for the textile trades, though they have always worked in these, first in the home and since then in the factories. still less is any preparation thought of for the numberless occupations that necessity and a perpetually changing world are all the while driving girls to take up. there were in 1910, 8,075,772 women listed as wage-earners in the united states. would it not be as well, if a girl is to be a wage-earner, that she should have at least as much opportunity of learning her trade properly, as is granted to a boy?

setting aside for the moment the fact that girls are already engaged in so many callings, it is poor policy and worse economy to argue that because a girl may be but a few years a wage-earner, it is therefore not worth while to make of her an efficient, capable wage-earner. that is fair to no one, neither to the girl herself nor to the community. the girl deserves to be taken more seriously. do this, and it will then be clear that a vocational system wide enough and flexible enough to fit the girl to be at once a capable mother-housekeeper, and a competent wage-earner, will be a system adequate to the vocational training of the boy for life-work in any of the industrial pursuits. it is self-evident that the converse would not hold.

and first, to those readers of advanced views who will think that i am conceding even too much in thus consenting apparently to sink the human activities of the woman in those of the mother during the greater part of maturity. touching the question of personal human development, i concede nothing, as i assert nothing, but i accept present-day facts, and desire to make such compromise with them as shall clear the way for whatever forms of home and industrial life shall evolve from them most naturally and simply. we may observe with satisfaction and hopefulness that the primitive collection of unrelated industries which have so long lingered in the home to the detriment of both and which have confused our thoughts as to which were the essential and permanent, and which the merely accidental and temporary functions of the home, are gradually coming within the range of the specialized trades, and as such are freeing the home from so much clutter and confusion, and freeing the woman from so many fettering bonds. but the process is a slow one, and again, it may not even go on indefinitely. there may be a limit in the process of specializing home industries. so far as it has gone, different classes of women are very unequally affected by it. in the united states, where these changes have gone on faster and further than anywhere else, the two classes whose occupations have been most radically modified have been, first and chiefly, the young girl from fourteen to twenty-four, of every class, and next the grownup woman, who has taken up one of the professions now for the first time open to women, and this almost irrespective of whether she is married or single.

as to the young girl, the transformation of the home plus industries to the home, pure and simple, a place to live in and rest in, to love in and be happy in, has so far already been effected, that in the home of the artisan and the tradesman there is not now usually sufficient genuine, profitable occupation for more than one growing or grown girl as assistant to her mother. for two reasons the other daughters will look out of doors for employment. the first reason is that under rearranged conditions of industry, there is nothing left for them to do at home. the second is not less typical of these altered conditions. the father cannot, even if he would, afford to keep them at home as non-producers. if the processes of making garments and preparing food are no longer performed by the members of the family for one another, the outsiders who do perform them must be remunerated, and that not in kind, as, for example, with board and lodging and clothing, but in money wages, in coin. and their share of the money to enable this complicated system of exchange of services to be carried out, must be earned by the unmarried daughters of the house through their working in turn at some wage-earning occupation, also outside.

the young woman who has entered medicine, or law, or dentistry, who paints pictures or writes books, is on very much the same economic basis as the young working-girl. she, too, is accepted as part of the already established order of things, and the present generation has grown up in happy ignorance of the difficulties experienced by the pioneers in all these professions in establishing their right to independent careers. the professional woman who has married finds herself so far on a less secure foundation. every professional woman who has children has to work out for herself the problem of the mutual adjustment of the claims of her profession and her family, but so many have solved the difficulties and have made the adjustment that it seems only a question of time when every professional woman may accept the happiness of wifehood and motherhood when it is offered to her without feeling that she has to choose once for all between a happy marriage and a successful professional career.

not a few professional women, writers, and speakers, have gone on to infer that a similar solution was at hand for the working-girl on her marriage. not yet is any such adjustment or rather readjustment of domestic and industrial activities in sight for her. whatever changes may take place in the environment of the coming american woman, the present generation of working-girls as they marry are going to find their hands abundantly filled with duties within the walls of their own little homes. we know today how the health and the moral welfare of children fare when young mothers are prematurely forced back into the hard and exhausting occupations from which marriage has withdrawn them.

again, the factory conditions of modern industry have been brought to their present stage with one end in view—economy of time and material with the aim of cheapening the product. the life and the smooth running of the human machine, when considered at all, has been thought of last, and in this respect america is even one of the most backward of the civilized nations. hence factory life is hard and disagreeable to the worker. especially to the young girl is it often unendurable. a girl who has been some years in a factory rarely wants her young sister to come into it, too. she herself is apt to shift from one shop to another, from trade to trade, always in the hope that some other work may prove less exhausting and monotonous than that with which she is familiar by trying experience. two forces tend to drive girls early out of industrial life: on the one hand, the perfectly normal instinct of self-protection in escaping from unnatural and health-ruining conditions and on the other the no less normal impulse leading to marriage. but oftener than we like to think, the first is the overmastering motive.

let us now take up the objections of those far more numerous to whom the provision of trade-training for girls seems superfluous, when not harmful, and who especially shrink from the suggestion of coeducation. to satisfy them, let us marshal a few facts and figures.

of every kind of education that has been proposed for girls, whether coeducational or not, we have always heard the same fears expressed. such education would make the girl unwomanly, it would unfit her for her true functions, a man could not wish to marry her, and so on. the first women teachers and doctors had indeed a hard time. after being admitted to the profession only at the point of the sword, so to speak, they had to make good, and in face of all prejudice, prove their ability to teach or to cure, so as to keep the path open for those who were to follow after them. no similar demand should be logically made of the working-girl today when she demands coeducation on industrial lines. for she is already in the trades from which you propose so futilely to exclude her, by denying her access to the technical training preparatory to them, and for fitting her to practice them.

take some other occupations which employ women in great numbers: textile mill operatives, saleswomen, tobacco-workers, cigar-workers, boot-and shoe-workers, printers, lithographers, and pressmen, and book-binders. you can hardly say that these are exceptions, for here are the figures, from the occupational statistics of the census of 1910.[a]

[footnote a: the statement that appeared in the report on "occupations" in the census returns of 1910, that there were but nine occupations in which women were not employed, has been widely commented upon.

an explanation appearing in the corresponding volume of the census report for 1910 shows the great difficulties that enumerators and statisticians experience in getting at exact facts, wherever the situation is both complex and confused. the census officials admit their inability to do so in the present instance, although they have revised the figures with extreme care. with all possible allowance for error, women still appear in all but a minority of employments. the classification of occupations is on a different basis, and the number of divisions much larger; yet even now out of four hundred and twenty-nine separately listed, women are returned as engaged in all but forty-two. on the other hand there is only one trade which does not embrace men, that of the (untrained) midwife.]

textile mill operatives 330,766

saleswomen 250,438

tobacco-workers and cigar-makers 71,334

boot- and shoe-makers and repairers 61,084

printers, lithographers and pressmen 27,845

book-binders 22,012

just here we can see a rock ahead. in the very prospects that we rejoice over, of the early introduction of public industrial training, we can detect an added risk for the girl. if such technical instruction is established in one state after another, but planned primarily to suit the needs of boys only, and the only teaching afforded to girls is in the domestic arts, and in the use of the needle and the pastebrush for wage-earning, where will our girls be when a few years hence the skilled trades are full of her only too well-trained industrial rivals? in a greater degree than even today, the girl will find herself everywhere at a disadvantage for lack of the early training the state has denied to her, while bestowing it upon her brother, and the few industrial occupations for which instruction is provided will be overcrowded with applicants.

that women should take such an inferior position in the trades they are in today is regrettable enough. but far more important is it to make sure that they obtain their fair share of whatever improved facilities are provided for "the generation knocking at the door" of life. working-women or women intimately acquainted with working-women's needs, should have seats on all commissions, boards and committees, so that when schemes of state industrial training are being planned, when schools are built, courses outlined, the interests of girls may be remembered, and especially so that they be borne in mind, when budgets are made up and appropriations asked for.

if not, it will only be one other instance of an added advantage to the man proving a positive disadvantage to the woman. you cannot benefit one class and leave another just as it was. every boon given to the bettered class increases the disproportion and actually helps to push yet further down the one left out.

among the many influences that make or mar the total content of life for any class, be that class a nation, a race, an industrial or economic group, there is one, the importance of which has been all too little realized. that influence we may call expectance. it is impossible for anyone to say how far a low standard of industrial or professional attainment held out before the girl at her most impressionable age, a standard that to some degree, therefore, develops within her, as it exists without her, ends in producing the very inefficiency it begins by assuming. but psychology has shown us that suggestion or expectance forms one element in the developing of faculty, and this whether it be manual dexterity, quickness of memory or exercise of judgment and initiative.

in all probability, too, this element of expectance has indirect as well as direct effects, and the indirect are not the least fruitful in results. to illustrate: it is certain that if we start out by assuming that girls are poor at accounts, that they cannot understand machinery, that they are so generally inefficient as to be worth less wages than boys, any such widespread assumption will go a long way to produce the ignorant and incompetent and inefficient creatures it presupposes girls to be. but it will do more than this. such poor standards alike of performance and of wages will not end with the unfortunate girls themselves. they will react upon parents, teachers, and the community which so largely consists of the parents and which employs the teachers. those pre?ssentials and antecedents of the competent worker, training, trainers, and the means and instruments of training, will not be forthcoming. what is the use of providing at great expense industrial training for girls, when the same money, spent upon boys, would produce more efficient workers? what is the use of giving girls such training, when they are presumably by nature unfitted to benefit by it?