the year 1781 opened with small promise of a speedy ending of the american struggle for independence. new york remained in the hands of the english. cornwallis was confident of success in the south. but greene’s brilliant campaigning and lafayette’s strategy left cornwallis with a wearied army devoid of any fruits of victory, and, finally returning to the seaboard, he settled himself at yorktown. washington, before new york, had watched the southern campaigns closely. word came from the count de grasse that the french fleet under his command was ready to leave the west indies and join in operations in virginia. washington at once planned a new campaign, destined to prove of peculiar brilliancy. he was joined by rochambeau’s french army from newport. clinton, the british commander in new york, was tricked into believing that the city was to be closely besieged. but the american and french armies, six thousand strong, passed by new york in a race through princeton and philadelphia to chesapeake bay, which they reached on september 5th, the day that de grasse entered with his fleet to join the other french fleet which had been set free from newport. de grasse maintained his command of chesapeake bay in spite of the futile attack of admiral graves and the british fleet. if rodney, who had sailed for england, had been in graves’ place the outcome might have been different. a defeat of de grasse would have meant british control of the water and a support for cornwallis, which would have saved his army and ruined washington’s plans. yorktown affords one of the striking illustrations in captain mahan’s influence of sea power upon history.—editor.

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the allied american and french armies joined lafayette at williamsburg, virginia, september 25, 1781, and on the 27th there was a besieging army there of sixteen146 thousand men, under the chief command of washington, assisted by rochambeau. the british force, about half as numerous, were mostly behind intrenchments at yorktown. on the arrival of washington and rochambeau at williamsburg, they proceeded to the ville de paris, de grasse’s flag-ship, to congratulate the admiral on his victory over the british admiral graves on the 5th, which147 had prevented british relief of yorktown by sea, and to make specific arrangements for the future. preparations for the siege were immediately begun. the allied armies marched from williamsburg (september 28th), driving in the british outposts as they approached yorktown, and taking possession of abandoned works. the allies formed a semicircular line about two miles from the british intrenchments, each wing resting on the york river, and on the 30th the place was completely invested. the british at gloucester, opposite, were imprisoned by french dragoons under the duke de lauzun, virginia militia, led by general weedon, and eight hundred french marines. only once did the imprisoned troops attempt to escape from that point. tarleton’s legion sallied out, but were soon driven back by de lauzun’s cavalry, who made tarleton’s horse a prisoner and came near capturing his owner.

siege of yorktown

in the besieging lines before yorktown the french troops occupied the left, the west india troops of st. simon being on the extreme flank. the americans were on the right; and the french artillery, with the quarters of the two commanders, occupied the centre. the american artillery, commanded by general knox, was with the right. the fleet of de grasse was in lynn haven bay to beat off any vessels that might attempt to relieve cornwallis. on the night of october 6th heavy ordnance was brought up from the french ships, and trenches were begun at six hundred yards from the british works. the first parallel was completed before the morning of the 7th, under the direction of general lincoln; and on the afternoon of the 9th several batteries and redoubts were finished, and a general discharge of heavy guns was opened by the americans on the right. early on the morning of the 10th the french opened several batteries on the left. that evening the same troops hurled red-hot balls upon british vessels in the river, which caused the destruction by fire of several of them—one a forty-four-gun ship.

148 the allies began the second parallel on the night of the 11th, which the british did not discover until daylight came, when they brought several heavy guns to bear upon the diggers. on the 14th it was determined to storm two of the redoubts which were most annoying, as they commanded the trenches. one on the right, near the york river, was garrisoned by forty-five men; the other, on the left, was manned by about one hundred and twenty men. the capture of the former was intrusted to americans led by lieutenant-colonel alexander hamilton, and that of the latter to french grenadiers led by count deuxponts. at a given signal hamilton advanced in two columns—one led by major fish, the other by lieutenant-colonel gimat, lafayette’s aide, while lieutenant-colonel john laurens, with eighty men, proceeded to turn the redoubt to intercept a retreat of the garrison. so agile and furious was the assault that the redoubt was carried in a few minutes, with little loss on either side. laurens was among the first to enter the redoubt and make the commander, major campbell, a prisoner. the life of every man who ceased to resist was spared.

meanwhile the french, after a severe struggle, in which they lost about one hundred men in killed and wounded, captured the other redoubt. washington, with knox and some others, had watched the movements with intense anxiety, and when the commander-in-chief saw both redoubts in possession of his troops he turned and said to knox, “the work is done, and well done.” that night both redoubts were included in the second parallel. the situation of cornwallis was now critical. he was surrounded by a superior force, his works were crumbling, and he saw that when the second parallel of the besiegers should be completed and the cannon on their batteries mounted his post at yorktown would become untenable, and he resolved to attempt an escape by abandoning the place, his baggage, and his sick, cross the york river, disperse the allies who environed gloucester, and by rapid marches149 gain the forks of the rappahannock and potomac, and, forcing his way by weight of numbers through maryland and pennsylvania, join clinton at new york.

boats for the passage of the river were prepared and a part of the troops passed over, when a furious storm suddenly arose and made any further attempts to cross too hazardous to be undertaken. the troops were brought back, and cornwallis lost hope. after that the bombardment of his lines was continuous, severe, and destructive, and on the 17th he offered to make terms for surrender. on the following day lieutenant-colonel de laurens and viscount de noailles (a kinsman of madame lafayette), as commissioners of the allies, met lieutenant-colonel dundas and major ross, of the british army, at the house of the widow moore to arrange terms for capitulation. they were made similar to those demanded of lincoln at charleston eighteen months before. the capitulation was duly signed, october 19, 1781, and late on the afternoon of the same day cornwallis, his army, and public property were surrendered to the allies.92

for the siege of yorktown the french provided thirty-seven ships of the line, and the americans nine. the americans furnished nine thousand land troops (of whom fifty-five hundred were regulars), and the french seven thousand. among the prisoners were two battalions of anspachers, amounting to ten hundred and twenty-seven men, and two regiments of hessians, numbering eight hundred and seventy-five. the flag of the anspachers was given to washington by the congress.

the news of the surrender of cornwallis at yorktown spread great joy throughout the colonies, especially at philadelphia, the seat of the national government. washington sent lieutenant-colonel tilghman to congress with the news. he rode express to philadelphia to carry the150 despatches of the chief announcing the joyful event. he entered the city at midnight, october 23d, and knocked so violently at the door of thomas mckean, the president of congress, that a watchman was disposed to arrest him. soon the glad tidings spread over the city. the watchman, proclaiming the hour and giving the usual cry, “all’s well,” added, “and cornwallis is taken!” thousands of citizens rushed from their beds, half dressed, and filled the streets. the old state-house bell, that had clearly proclaimed independence, now rang out tones of gladness. lights were seen moving in every house. the first blush of morning was greeted with the booming of cannon, and at an early hour the congress assembled and with quick-beating hearts heard charles thomson read the despatch from washington. at its conclusion it was resolved to go in a body to the lutheran church, at 2 p.m., and “return thanks to the almighty god for crowning the allied armies of the united states and france with success.”93

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the results of yorktown

by claude halstead van tyne, ph.d.

the surrender of cornwallis came at the right time to produce a great political effect in england. the war had assumed such tremendous proportions that accumulated disaster seemed to threaten the ruin of great britain. from india came news of hyder ali’s temporary successes, and of the presence of a strong french armament which demanded that england yield every claim except to bengal.151 that warren hastings and sir eyre coote would yet save the british empire there, the politicians could not foresee. spain had already driven the british forces from florida, and in the spring of 1782 minorca fell before her repeated assaults and gibraltar was fearfully beset. de grasse’s successes during the winter in the west indies left only jamaica, barbadoes, and antigua in british hands. st. eustatius, too, was recaptured, and it was not until the middle of april that rodney regained england’s naval supremacy by a famous victory near marie-galante.94 england had not a friend in europe, and was beset at home by violent agitation in ireland, to which she was obliged to yield an independent irish parliament.95 rodney’s victory and the successful repulsion of the spaniards from gibraltar, in the summer of 1782, came too late to save the north ministry.

the negotiations between the english and american peace envoys dragged on. congress had instructed the commissioners not to make terms without the approval of the french court, but the commissioners became suspicious of vergennes, broke their instructions, and dealt directly and solely with the british envoys. boundaries, fishery questions, treatment of the american loyalists, and settlement of american debts to british subjects were settled one after another, and, november 30, 1782, a provisional treaty was signed. the definitive treaty was delayed until september 3, 1783, after france and england had agreed upon terms of peace.96

america awaited the outcome almost with lethargy. after yorktown the country relapsed into indifference, and washington was left helpless to do anything to assure victory. he could only wait and hope that the enemy was as exhausted as america. disorganization was seen everywhere—in politics, in finance, and in the army.152 peace came like a stroke of good-fortune rather than a prize that was won. congress (january 14, 1784) could barely assemble a quorum to ratify the treaty.97

during the war many had feared that british victory would mean the overthrow in england of constitutional liberty. the defeat, therefore, of the king’s purpose in america seemed a victory for liberalism in england as well as in america. personal government was overthrown, and no british king has gained such power since. the dangers to freedom of speech and of the press were ended. corruption and daring disregard of public law received a great blow. the ancient course of english constitutional development was resumed. england never, it is true, yielded to her colonies what america had demanded in 1775, but she did learn to handle the affairs of her colonies with greater diplomacy, and she does not allow them now to get into such an unsympathetic state.

great britain herself was not so near ruin as she seemed; she was still to be the mother of nations, and the english race was not weakened, though the empire was broken. in political, social, and intellectual spirit england and america continued to be much the same. english notions of private and public law still persisted in independent america. the large influence which the anglo-saxon race had long had upon the world’s destiny was not left with either america or england alone, but with them both. america only continued england’s “manifest destiny” in america, pushing her language, modes of political and intellectual activity, and her social customs westward and southward—driving back latin civilization in the same resistless way as before the revolution.

for america much good came out of the revolution. americans had acted together in a great crisis, and washington’s efforts in the army to banish provincial distinctions153 did much to create fellow-feeling which would make real union possible. with laws and governments alike, and the same predominant language, together with common political and economic interests, future unity seemed assured.

the republican form of government was now given a strong foothold in america. frederick the great asserted that the new republic could not endure, because “a republican government had never been known to exist for any length of time where the territory was not limited and concentrated”; yet america, within a century, was to make it a success over a region three times as great as the territory for which frederick foretold failure.98

synopsis of the principal events, chiefly

military, between the battle of

yorktown, 1781, and the

battles on the lakes,

1813 and 1814

1782. holland recognizes the independence of the united states. the british evacuate savannah and charleston. signing of the preliminary treaty of peace with great britain.

1783. peace of versailles between great britain, the united states, france, and spain. great britain acknowledges the independence of the united states, restores florida and minorca to spain, and cedes tobago to france. evacuation of new york by the british.

1785. disputes between the united states and spain over the navigation of the mississippi and the boundaries of the floridas.

1786. outbreak of shays’ rebellion in massachusetts.

154 1787. suppression of shays’ rebellion. framing of the constitution of the united states at philadelphia. congress undertakes the government of the northwest territory.

1788. the constitution ratified by a majority of the states.

1789. george washington elected first president of the united states. the continental congress is superseded by the first congress under the constitution. beginning of the french revolution.

1790. rhode island (the last of the original thirteen states) ratifies the constitution. harmar’s unsuccessful expedition against the indians of the northwest territory.

1791. admission of vermont into the union. defeat of st. clair by the miami indians. insurrection of the blacks in hayti against the french. canada is divided into upper and lower canada.

1792. admission of kentucky into the union.

1793. beginning of washington’s second administration. execution of louis xvi. and marie antoinette. napoleon bonaparte commands the french artillery at the recapture of toulon from the english.

1794. whiskey insurrection in pennsylvania. the miami indians defeated by gen. anthony wayne near maumee rapids, ohio.

1796. admission of tennessee into the union. john adams elected president. bonaparte becomes the conspicuous figure in european warfare.

1797. trouble between france and the united states. the constellation captures l’insurgente.

1798. passage of the alien and sedition laws in the united states.

1799. death of washington.

1800. the seat of government of the united states is removed from philadelphia to washington. thomas jefferson elected president. retrocession of louisiana to france by spain.

155 1801. war between tripoli and the united states.

1802. admission of ohio into the union.

1803. the louisiana purchase is negotiated with france.

1804. thomas jefferson re-elected president. decatur captures and burns the frigate philadelphia at tripoli. lewis and clark expedition, 1804–1806. napoleon proclaimed emperor of france.

1805. peace between the united states and tripoli.

1806. the leander, a british naval vessel, fires into an american coaster off sandy hook. great britain issues an “order in council” declaring the coast of europe from the elbe to brest under blockade. napoleon issues berlin decree. culmination of aaron burr’s conspiracy and his arrest.

1807. congress prohibits the importation of slaves. the british man-of-war leopard fires upon the american frigate chesapeake and takes four seamen claimed as british subjects. aaron burr tried for conspiracy and treason, and acquitted. another british “order in council” forbids neutral nations to deal with france. napoleon’s milan decree forbidding trade with england. american embargo act, prohibiting foreign commerce.

1808. james madison elected president. embargo act repealed. non-intercourse act passed, forbidding commerce with great britain and france.

1809. recall of british minister asked by american government.

1810. napoleon orders sale of captured american vessels, worth with their cargoes $8,000,000.

1811. general harrison defeats tecumseh at tippecanoe. fight between the united states frigate president and the british sloop-of-war little belt.

1812. admission of louisiana into the union. the united states declares war against great britain. the americans, under hull, invade canada. surrender of hull at detroit. the constitution captures the guerrière; the wasp takes the frolic; the united states, the macedonian;156 and the constitution, the java. james madison re-elected president. general smyth makes a futile attempt to invade canada.

1813. the british are victorious at frenchtown. the hornet captures the peacock. the americans take york (toronto), and the british are repulsed at sackett’s harbor. capture of the chesapeake by the shannon. the boxer taken by the enterprise. commodore perry wins the battle of lake erie.

1814. general jackson defeats the creek indians. the essex surrenders to the ph?be and the cherub. the americans are victorious at chippewa and lundy’s lane. battle of lake champlain. in europe the year was chiefly notable for the entry of the allies into paris, the abdication of napoleon, and his withdrawal to elba.