this persian epic was composed by the poet abul kasin mansur, who sang so sweetly that his master termed him firdusi, or singer of paradise, by which name he is best known, although he is also called the "homer of the east." mahmoud, shah of persia, who lived about 920 b.c., decided to have the chronicles of the land put into rhyme, and engaged firdusi for this piece of work, promising him a thousand gold pieces for every thousand distichs he finished. firdusi, who had long wished to build stone embankments for the river whose overflow devastated his native town, begged the king to withhold payment until the work was done.
at the end of thirty-three years, when the poem was completed, the grand vizier, after counting its sixty-thousand couplets, concluded not to pay for it in gold, and sent instead sixty thousand small pieces of silver. on receiving so inadequate a reward, firdusi became so angry that, after distributing the money among the bearers and writing an insulting poem to the king, he fled first to mazinderan and then to bagdad, where he lingered until shortly before his death, when he returned to tous. tradition claims that the shah; hearing he had come home,—and having meantime discovered the trickery of his minister,—immediately sent firdusi sixty thousand pieces of gold, but that the money arrived only as his corpse was being lowered into the tomb! as the poet's daughter indignantly refused to accept this tardy atonement, another relative took the money and built the dike which firdusi had longed to see.
we know that persian monarchs made sundry attempts to collect the annals of their country, but these collections were scattered at the time of the arabian conquest, so that only a few documents were brought back to persia later on. although the poem of firdusi claims to be a complete history of persia, it contains so many marvels that, were it not for its wonderful diction, it would not have survived, although he declares he has written,
"what no tide
shall ever wash away, what men
unborn shall read o'er ocean wide."[38]
the poem opens with the description of a ruler so prosperous that the spirit of evil sent a mighty devil (deev) to conquer him. thanks to the effort of this demon, the king's son was slain, and, as the monarch died of grief, it was his grandson who succeeded him. during a forty-centuries reign this king gave fire to his people, taught them irrigation and agriculture, and bestowed names on all the beasts.
his son and successor taught mortals how to spin and weave, and the demons, in hopes of destroying him, imparted to him the arts of reading and writing. next came the famous persian hero jemshid, who is said to have reigned seven hundred years, and to have divided the persian nation into four classes,—priests, warriors, artisans, and husbandmen. during his reign, which is the age of gold of persia, the world was divided into separate parts, and the city of persepolis founded, where two columns of the ruined royal palace still bear the name of the monarch who instituted the national festival of persia (neurouz).
having accomplished all these wonderful things, jemshid became so conceited that he wished to be worshipped, whereupon a neighboring volcano vomited smoke and ashes and innumerable snakes infested the land. then prince zohak of arabia was sent by the evil spirit to drive away jemshid and to take possession of his throne. although at first zohak was very virtuous, the evil spirit, having gotten him in his power, began to serve him in guise of a cook. once, having succeeded in pleasing him, he begged permission as reward to kiss the king between his shoulders. but no sooner had this demon's lips touched the royal back than two black serpents sprang up there, serpents which could not be destroyed, and which could only be kept quiet by being fed with human brains.
"if life hath any charm for thee,
the brains of men their food must be."
zohak, "the serpent king," as he is now invariably called, was therefore obliged to prey upon his subjects to satisfy the appetite of these serpents, and, as two men were required daily for that purpose during the next thousand years, the realm was sorely depopulated.
the serpents still on human brains were fed,
and every day two youthful victims bled;
the sword, still ready, thirsting still to strike,
warrior and slave were sacrificed alike.
naturally, all the persians grew to loathe their monarch, and, when the seventeenth and last child of the blacksmith kavah was seized to feed the serpents, this man rebelled, and, raising his leathern apron as a standard, rallied the persians around him. he then informed them that, if they would only fight beneath "the flag of kavah,"—which is now the persian ensign,—he would give them as king feridoun, a son of jemshid, born during his exile. hearing this, the rebels went in quest of feridoun, "the glorious," in regard to whom zohak has been favored with sundry visions, although he had been brought up in secret, his sole nurse being a faithful cow. when this animal died at last, the grateful feridoun made a mace of one of its big bones, and armed with that weapon, defeated zohak, who was chained to a mountain, where he was tortured by visions of his victims for a thousand years. meantime feridoun occupied so justly the throne of persia—where he reigned some five hundred years—that his realm became an earthly paradise.
at the end of this long reign, feridoun despatched his three sons to arabia in quest of wives, and on their return proceeded to test their mettle by meeting them in the shape of a dragon. while the eldest son retreated, crying that a wise and prudent man never strives with dragons, the second advanced recklessly, without thinking of protecting himself. the third, however, set to work in a business-like way, not only to rescue his foolhardy brother, but to slay the dragon. on perceiving this, the father resumed his wonted form, and announced he would divide his realm into three parts, of which the best share, iran or persia, was bestowed upon trij, the son who had shown both courage and prudence.
not long after this division, the two elder brothers united to despoil the younger, but, although they succeeded in slaying him, his infant daughter was brought up by the aged feridoun, and in due time gave birth to a son, minuchir, destined to avenge his grandfather's death by defeating and slaying his great-uncles. having done this, minuchir occupied the throne, while his favorite vassal was made governor of one of the newly conquered realms. this swarthy, dark-haired man proved perfectly happy in these new estates until he heard his wife had given birth to a son with snow-white hair.
"no human being of this earth could give to such a monster birth,
he must be of the demon race, though human still in form and face.
if not a demon, he at least, appears a parti-colored beast."
such an offspring seeming nothing short of a curse, the father had little zal exposed on mt. alborz, where he expected he would perish in a brief space of time.
on the top of this mountain the simurgh, or bird of god,—a marvellous golden-feathered eagle,—had built a nest of ebony and sandal-wood, lined with spices, around which she had piled all manner of precious stones, whose glitter pleased her. hearing the cry of a babe, this great bird swooped downward, and, fastening her talons in the child's dress, bore him safely away to her aerie, where she dropped him in the nest beside two eaglets. these little birds proved kind to the young prince, although they were able to leave their nest long before he could walk about and play with the precious stones.
it was only when zal was about eight years old that his father suddenly realized he had committed a deadly sin, and was correspondingly relieved to learn in a dream that his child had not perished, but had been nursed by the simurgh. hastening to the mountain, the father besought the bird of god to give back his son, whereupon the golden-feathered eagle, after taking affectionate leave of little zal (upon whom she bestowed a feather which was to be cast into the fire in time of need), bore him back to his father.
"having watched thee with fondness by day and by night,
and supplied all thy wants with a mother's delight,
oh, forget not thy nurse—still be faithful to me,
and my heart will be ever devoted to thee."
the father now brought up young zal, who soon became so remarkable for strength and bravery that he promised to become the greatest warrior the world had ever known. in early manhood this youth journeyed to kabul, where he beheld the lovely rudaveh, who belonged to the race of the serpent king. the arrival of a young but white-haired warrior caused such a sensation at court that the princess, who had already fallen in love with him on hearsay, became anxious to meet him.
one day, when the maidens were gathering roses near his pavilion, zal shot a bird, which falling in their midst gave them an occasion to address him. he, too, had heard so much about the loveliness of rudaveh, that he questioned her attendants and gave them jewels to take to her. such gifts quickly paved the way for an interview, for rudaveh immediately sent for zal. on appearing beneath her window, this lover began so sweet a serenade that the princess stepped out in her balcony, where, loosening her long black braids,—which hung down to the ground,—she bade zal use them to climb up to her. he, however, gallantly refused, for fear he should hurt her, and deftly flinging his noose upward caught it fast in a projection, and thus safely reached the balcony, where this persian romeo acceptably wooed his juliet.
the royal parents, on discovering these clandestine meetings, questioned the young man, who proved his intelligence by solving six riddles, and, after giving satisfactory tokens of his other qualifications, was allowed to marry the princess, for the oracles predicted that from this union would arise a hero who would honor his native land.
time now passed happily until the moment came when rudaveh's life was in imminent danger. in his quandary, zal flung the golden feather into the fire with so trembling a hand that it fell to one side so that only one edge was singed. this proved sufficient, however, to summon the faithful simurgh, who, after rapturously caressing her nursling, whispered in his ear a magic word, which not only enabled him to save the life of his dying wife, but also assured his becoming the happy father of a stalwart son named rustem.
this boy, stronger and handsomer than any child yet born, required no less than ten nurses, and after being weaned ate as much as five men! such being the case, he was able, by the time he was eight years of age, to slay a mad white elephant with a single stroke of his fist. many similar feats were performed during the boyhood of this persian hercules, who longed to fight when the realm was finally invaded by the tartar chief afrasiab and war began to devastate the land.
loud neighed the steeds, and their resounding hoofs
shook the deep caverns of the earth; the dust
rose up in clouds and hid the azure heavens.—
bright beamed the swords, and in that carnage wide,
blood flowed like water.
when the persians, in their distress, implored zal to meet and defeat this dreaded foe, the hero answered he was far too old to perform such a task, but that his son rustem would fight in his stead. before sending him forth, however, zal bade rustem select a suitable steed, and, from all those paraded before him, the youth picked out a rose-colored colt called rakush (lightning) whom no one had ever been able to mount, although he was quite old enough to use. after lassoing and taming this wonderful steed,—which obeyed him alone,—rustem, armed with a mace, set out to meet the foe, sent hither as he knew by the evil spirit. then, to oppose afrasiab, rustem placed kaikobad, a descendant of the old royal family, on the throne, after driving away the foe. the wise kaikobad, who reigned peacefully one hundred years, was, however, succeeded by a very foolish son, kaikous, who, ill satisfied with the extent of his realm, undertook to conquer mazinderan, which was in the hands of demons, but which he had coveted ever since it had been described by a young bard who sang:
"and mark me, that untravelled man
who never saw mazinderan
and all the charms its bowers possess,
has never tasted happiness."
on hearing his master propose such a conquest, zal vainly remonstrated, but the foolish monarch set out, and on arriving in mazinderan was defeated by the demons, who blinded him and his army and detained them prisoners. no sooner did the news of this calamity reach zal, than he bade rustem go rescue the foolish monarch, adding that, although it had taken kaikous six months to reach his destination, rustem could get there in seven days, provided he were willing to brave great dangers.
of course the hero selected the shorter route, and on the first day slew a wild ass, which he roasted for supper before lying down to rest. the odor of roast meat, however, attracted a lion, which would have made a meal of the sleeping rustem, had not his brave steed fought with hoofs and teeth until he succeeded in slaying the beast of prey. awakened only as the fight ended, rustem reproved his horse for risking his life in this reckless way and bade him henceforth call for aid.
"oh, rakush, why so thoughtless grown
to fight a lion thus alone?
for had it been thy fate to bleed
and not thy foe, o gallant steed!
how could thy master have conveyed
his helm, and battle-axe, and blade,
unaided to mazinderan?
why didst thou fail to give the alarm,
and save thyself from chance of harm,
by neighing loudly in my ear?
but, though thy bold heart knows no fear,
from such unwise exploits refrain
nor try a lion's strength again."
during the second day's journey, rustem was saved from perishing of thirst by following a stray ram to a mountain stream; and on the third night, having forbidden his horse to attack any foe without warning him, rustem was twice awakened by the loud neighing of rakush, who had seen an eighty-yard long dragon draw near. each time he neighed, however, the dragon disappeared, so rustem, seeing nought, reproved his horse for breaking his rest. the third time, however, he caught a glimpse of the dragon's fiery eyes, so, attacking him, he slew him, thanks to the help of his horse. the fourth day was signalized by other marvellous adventures, and on the fifth, while journeying through the land of magic, rustem was met by a sorceress, who tried to win him by many wiles. although he accepted the banquet and cup of wine she tendered, he no sooner bade her quaff it in the name of god, than she was forced to resume her fiendish form, whereupon he slew her.
on the sixth day, rustem, forced to ride through a land where the sun never shone, allowed his intelligent steed to guide him, and thus safely reached on the seventh a land of plenty and light, where he lay down to rest. there, while he was sleeping, the people of mazinderan captured his wonderful steed. but, following the traces of his struggling horse, rustem, by dint of great exertions, made them give back rakush, and forced them to guide him to the cave where the white demon was detaining his fellow-countrymen prisoners.
in front of this cave rustem found an array of demons, and, after conquering them all, forced his way into the persian hell, whence he rescued his companions, whose sight he restored by trickling the blood of the white demon into their sightless eyes.
having thus earned the title of "champion of the world," rustem escorted the stupid king home, but this monarch, not satisfied with this blunder, committed one folly after another. we are told that he even undertook to fly, his special make of aeroplane being a carpet borne by four starving eagles, fastened to the four corners of its frame, and frantically striving to reach a piece of meat fixed temptingly above and ahead of them.
time and again the foolish monarch kaikous was rescued by the efforts of rustem, who, in the course of his wanderings, finally came to the court of a king, whose daughter, loving him by hearsay, had his horse stolen from him. when rustem angrily demanded the return of his steed, the monarch assured him he should have rakush on the morrow. but that night the beautiful princess, tamineh, stole into rustem's room, and, after waking him, promised he should have his horse provided he would marry her. charmed by her beauty and grace, rustem readily consented, and found such attractions in his bride that he lingered by her side for some time.
the moment came, however, when the foolish monarch required rustem's services, and, as tamineh was not able at that time to bear the long journey, rustem bade her a fond farewell, leaving an onyx bracelet bearing the image of the simurgh, with which he bade her deck their expected child. in due time the lovely princess gave birth to a beautiful boy, whom she called sorab (sunshine), but, fearing lest rustem should take him away to train him as a warrior, she sent word to him that she had given birth to a daughter. girls being of minor importance in persia, rustem inquired no further about this child, and was kept so busy serving his monarch that he never once visited his wife while his son was growing up.
for a long time tamineh jealously guarded the secret of sorab's birth, fearing lest her young son would want to go forth and do battle too. but when she could no longer keep him home, she told him the story of her wooing:
"listen, my child, and you shall hear
of the wondrous love of a maiden dear
for a mighty warrior, the pride of his day
who loved, and married, and rode away,
for this is the romance of rustem."
the lad, who had always cherished a romantic admiration for rustem, was overjoyed to learn his origin, and departed only after being reminded that he must never fight his father, although about to help the tartars in a war against persia. sorab was doing so because everybody was tired of the foolish king, who was to be overthrown, so that rustem could be placed on the throne in his stead. to make sure her son should not fail to recognize his father, tamineh sent with him two faithful servants who had known rustem well when he came to woo her.
meantime afrasiab, chief of the tartars, delighted to have sorab's aid against persia, cautioned all his warriors not to tell the youth, should his father appear in the opposite army, for he slyly hoped "the young lion would kill the old one," and felt sure that, were he only rid of father and son, he would be able to rule over persia himself.
in the course of this war young sorab met with many adventures, fighting once against an amazon, who by trickery managed to escape from him. however, sorab kept hoping the time would come when he and his father would meet face to face, and, whenever a fray was about to take place, he always bade his companions scan the ranks of the foe to make sure that rustem was not there.[39]
meantime the foolish king, having gotten the worst in the war, had sent for rustem, who, for reconnoitring purposes, entered the tartar camp as a spy. there he beheld sorab, and could not help admiring the young warrior, of whose many brave exploits he had already heard. while thus sneaking about the enemy's tent, rustem was discovered by the two servants whom tamineh had placed by her son's side, both of whom he killed before they could give the alarm. thus, when sorab and rustem finally came face to face, there was no one at hand to point out the son to the father or inform the son of his close relationship to his antagonist. after the war had raged for some time, sorab challenged the persians to a single fight, for he was anxious to distinguish himself, knowing that should he win a great triumph his father would hear of it, and inquire the origin of the youth of whom such tales were told:
"come then, hear now, and grant me what i ask.
let the two armies rest to-day; but i
will challenge forth the bravest persian lords
to meet me, man to man: if i prevail,
rustum will surely hear it; if i fall—
old man, the dead need no one, claim no kin.
dim is the rumor of a common fight,
where host meets host, and many names are sunk;
but of a single combat fame speaks clear."[40]
such was the reputation of sorab, however, that none of the persians dared encounter him, and urged rustem to undertake this task himself. fearing lest so youthful an opponent should withdraw if he heard the name of his antagonist, or that he should pride himself too greatly on the honor done him, rustem went into battle in disguise.
on seeing a stalwart old warrior approach, sorab felt strangely moved, and, running to meet him, begged to know his name, for he had a premonition that this was rustem. the father, too, seized by a peculiar feeling of tenderness for this youth, commented to himself that had he a male descendant he would fain have had him look like sorab, and therefore tried to make him withdraw his challenge. notwithstanding sorab's eager inquiries, rustem obstinately refused to divulge his name, and, seeing his opponent would not desist, bade him begin the fight without further ado.
and then he turned and sternly spake aloud,—
"rise! wherefore dost thou vainly question thus
of rustum? i am here whom thou hast called
by challenge forth; make good thy vaunt, or yield!
is it with rustum only thou wouldst fight?
rash boy, men look on rustum's face, and flee!
for well i know, that did great rustum stand
before thy face this day, and were revealed,
there would be then no talk of fighting more."
for three consecutive days the battle raged, father and son proving of equal strength and skill. but, although sorab once overthrew rustem, he generously stepped aside and allowed the aged warrior to recover his footing. several times, also, the young man proposed that they sheathe their swords, for his heart continued to be attracted to his opponent, who, fighting down similar emotions, always taunted his antagonist into renewing the fight.
he spoke; and sohrab kindled at his taunts,
and he too drew his sword; at once they rushed
together, as two eagles on one prey
come rushing down together from the clouds,
one from the east, one from the west; their skulls
dashed with a clang together, and a din
rose, such as that the sinewy woodcutters
make often in the forest's heart at morn,
of hewing axes, crashing trees,—such blows
rustum and sohrab on each other hailed.
it was only on the fifth day that rustem, forgetting everything in the excitement of the moment, met his foe with his usual war cry, "rustem, rustem." the mere sound of so beloved a name so paralyzed sorab, that, instead of meeting this onslaught, he sank beneath his father's blow. then he gasped that, although dying, his adversary could not pride himself upon having fairly won the victory, for nothing short of his father's name could have disarmed him thus!
"but that belovèd name unnerved my arm,—
that name, and something, i confess, in thee,
which troubles all my heart, and made my shield
fall; and thy spear transfixed an unarmed foe.
and now thou boastest, and insult'st my fate.
but hear thou this, fierce man, tremble to hear:
the mighty rustum shall avenge my death!
my father, whom i seek through all the world,
he shall avenge my death, and punish thee!"
on hearing these words, rustem anxiously demanded explanation, only to learn that the man he had mortally wounded was his own son, as was only too surely proved by the bracelet decorated with the simurgh which sorab exhibited.
it was that griffin which of old reared zal,
rustum's great father, whom they left to die,
a helpless babe, among the rocks;
him that kind creature found, and reared, and loved;
then rustum took it for his glorious sign.
not only did broken-hearted rustem hang over his dying son in speechless grief, but the steed rakush wept bitter tears over the youth who had so longed to bestride him.
and awe fell on both the hosts,
when they saw rustum's grief; and ruksh, the horse,
with his head bowing to the ground, and mane
sweeping the dust, came near, and in mute woe
first to the one, then to the other, moved
his head, as if inquiring what their grief
might mean; and from his dark compassionate eyes,
the big warm tears rolled down and caked the sand.
in hopes of saving his son, rustem vainly implored the foolish monarch to bestow upon him a drop of some magic ointment he owned. but sorab expired without this aid in rustem's arms, and the broken-hearted father burned his remains on a pyre. then he conveyed to his home sorab's ashes, and sent the young hero's riderless steed back to his poor mother, who died of grief.
we are told that the foolish king proved so fortunate as to have a noble and generous son named siawush, of whom he became so jealous that the youth had to leave home and was brought up by rustem. the step-mother, who had so poisoned his father's mind against him, plotted siawush's death as soon as he returned to court, by accusing him of making love to her. in anger the father decreed that siawush should submit to the test of fire, so huge furnaces were lighted, through which the young man rode unharmed, the angel of pity and the spirit of his dead mother standing on either side of him to guard him from injury. because the step-mother had wrongfully accused siawush, she too was condemned to pass through the fire, but her step-son, knowing she could never stand such an ordeal, pleaded successfully in her behalf.
not daring to remain at his father's court, this young prince withdrew among the tartars, where he married afrasiab's daughter. but such were his qualities and noble deeds, that his wicked father-in-law became jealous enough of him to slay him. he did not, however, succeed in exterminating the race, for a kind-hearted nobleman, piran-wisa, secreted siawush's little son, and entrusted him to a goat-herd to bring up. when afrasiab discovered a few years later that this child was still living, he planned to put him to death, until the nobleman assured him the child was an idiot and would, therefore, never work him any harm. only half convinced, afrasiab sent for the youth, kai-khosrau, who, duly instructed by his protector, returned such crazy answers to his grandfather's questions, that afrasiab felt satisfied he was an idiot indeed.
this young prince, having attained manhood, led a rebellion so successfully that he not only dethroned his grandfather, afrasiab, but also recovered his hereditary throne of persia. there he reigned for many years, at the end of which he became so anxious to leave this world, that he prayed the good god (ormudz) to receive him in his bosom. in a dream this divinity informed the king that, as soon as his affairs were in order and his successor named, his wish would be granted. kai-khosrau, therefore, made all his arrangements, and set out on the journey to the next world, bidding his friends not try to accompany him, for the road would be too hard for them to travel. in spite of these injunctions, a few faithful followers went with him, until they reached a place where the cold was so intense that they all froze to death, and thus left him to continue alone the journey from whence he never returned.
and not a trace was left behind,
and not a dimple on the wave;
all sought, but sought in vain, to find
the spot which proved kai-khosrau's grave.
the successor which kai-khosrau had chosen proved a just ruler until he became jealous of his own son, isfendiyar, who was also a great warrior, and who, like rustem, accomplished seven great works. he, too, overcame demons, wolves, lions, enchanters, dragons, and unchained elements, and on one occasion proceeded to rescue two of his sisters, who were detained captives in the fortress of arjasp, a demon king. knowing he could not enter this stronghold by force, isfendiyar penetrated into it in the guise of a merchant, having hidden in his chests a number of soldiers, who were to help him when the right moment came. thanks to their aid and to the fact that he began by intoxicating his foe, isfendiyar triumphed.
the time came, however, when isfendiyar was ordered by his father to bring rustem to court in chains. this task proved most distasteful to the prince, who, on approaching rustem, explained that he was not a free agent. because the old hero obstinately refused to be manacled, the two warriors began fighting, and at the end of the day rustem and his steed were so severely wounded that isfendiyar felt sure they would not be able to renew the fight on the morrow.
it happened, however, that the aged zal, on seeing his wounded son, remembered his partly burned feather, and promptly cast it into the fire. immediately the simurgh appeared, and with one touch of her golden wings healed the horse, and used her clever beak to draw the lance out of rustem's side. having thus healed her nursling's son, the simurgh vanished, leaving rustem and his steed in such good condition that they were able to renew the battle on the morrow. this time, isfendiyar perished beneath rustem's blows, exclaiming that the hero was not to blame for his death and that he fell victim to his father's hate. in token of forgiveness, he begged rustem to bring up his son, a wish which was piously carried out by the brave warrior as long as he lived.
because it had been written in the stars that "he who slew isfendiyar would die miserably," rustem was somewhat prepared for his tragic fate. it seems his young half-brother finally became so jealous of him that he plotted to kill him by digging seven pits lined with swords and spears. these were hidden in a road along which rustem had to travel when he came in the king's name to claim tribute. falling into the first pit, rustem set his spurs to rakush's sides; and the brave steed, although wounded, leaped out of this trap, only to tumble into a second and third. from pit to pit rustem and his dauntless horse landed at the bottom of the seventh, fainting from their many wounds.
the treacherous step-brother now drew cautiously near to ascertain whether rustem were dead, whereupon our hero begged for his bow and arrows, declaring he wished to ward off the wild beasts as long as he remained alive. the unsuspecting brother, therefore, flung the desired weapons down into the pit, but no sooner were they within reach, than rustem fitted an arrow to the string, casting such a baleful look at his step-brother that this coward hastened to take refuge behind a tree. no obstacle could, however, balk the righteously angry rustem, who sent his arrow straight through the trunk into his brother's heart, thus punishing the murderer for his dastardly trick. then, returning thanks for having been allowed to avenge his wrongs, rustem breathed his last beside his faithful steed.
on hearing his son had perished, zal sent an army to lay kabul waste, and, having recovered the corpses of rustem and of his steed, laid them piously to rest in a magnificent tomb in seistan.