when we force our way into the depths of the forests, following any of the rivers back to their fountains, we find that the bulk of the woods is made up of the douglas spruce (pseudotsuga douglasii), named in honor of david douglas, an enthusiastic botanical explorer of early hudson's bay times. it is not only a very large tree but a very beautiful one, with lively bright-green drooping foliage, handsome pendent cones, and a shaft exquisitely straight and regular. for so large a tree it is astonishing how many find nourishment and space to grow on any given area. the magnificent shafts push their spires into the sky close together with as regular a growth as that of a well-tilled field of grain. and no ground has been better tilled for the growth of trees than that on which these forests are growing. for it has been thoroughly ploughed and rolled by the mighty glaciers from the mountains, and sifted and mellowed and outspread in beds hundreds of feet in depth by the broad streams that issued from their fronts at the time of their recession, after they had long covered all the land.

the largest tree of this species that i have myself measured was nearly twelve feet in diameter at a height of five feet from the ground, and, as near as i could make out under the circumstances, about three hundred feet in length. it stood near the head of the sound not far from olympia. i have seen a few others, both near the coast and thirty or forty miles back in the interior, that were from eight to ten feet in diameter, measured above their bulging insteps; and many from six to seven feet. i have heard of some that were said to be three hundred and twenty-five feet in height and fifteen feet in diameter, but none that i measured were so large, though it is not at all unlikely that such colossal giants do exist where conditions of soil and exposure are surpassingly favorable. the average size of all the trees of this species found up to an elevation on the mountain slopes of, say, two thousand feet above sea level, taking into account only what may be called mature trees two hundred and fifty to five hundred years of age, is perhaps, at a vague guess, not more than a height of one hundred and seventy-five or two hundred feet and a diameter of three feet; though, of course, throughout the richest sections the size is much greater.

in proportion to its weight when dry, the timber from this tree is perhaps stronger than that of any other conifer in the country. it is tough and durable and admirably adapted in every way for shipbuilding, piles, and heavy timbers in general. but its hardness and liability to warp render it much inferior to white or sugar pine for fine work. in the lumber markets of california it is known as "oregon pine" and is used almost exclusively for spars, bridge timbers, heavy planking, and the framework of houses.

the same species extends northward in abundance through british columbia and southward through the coast and middle regions of oregon and california. it is also a common tree in the canyons and hollows of the wahsatch mountains in utah, where it is called "red pine" and on portions of the rocky mountains and some of the short ranges of the great basin. along the coast of california it keeps company with the redwood wherever it can find a favorable opening. on the western slope of the sierra, with the yellow pine and incense cedar, it forms a pretty well-defined belt at a height of from three thousand to six thousand feet above the sea, and extends into the san gabriel and san bernardino mountains in southern california. but, though widely distributed, it is only in these cool, moist northlands that it reaches its finest development, tall, straight, elastic, and free from limbs to an immense height, growing down to tide water, where ships of the largest size may lie close alongside and load at the least possible cost.

growing with the douglas we find the white spruce, or "sitka pine," as it is sometimes called. this also is a very beautiful and majestic tree, frequently attaining a height of two hundred feet or more and a diameter of five or six feet. it is very abundant in southeastern alaska, forming the greater part of the best forests there. here it is found mostly around the sides of beaver-dam and other meadows and on the borders of the streams, especially where the ground is low. one tree that i saw felled at the head of the hop-ranch meadows on the upper snoqualmie river, though far from being the largest i have seen, measured a hundred and eighty feet in length and four and a half in diameter, and was two hundred and fifty-seven years of age.

in habit and general appearance it resembles the douglas spruce, but it is somewhat less slender and the needles grow close together all around the branchlets and are so stiff and sharp-pointed on the younger branches that they cannot well be handled without gloves. the timber is tough, close-grained, white, and looks more like pine than any other of the spruces. it splits freely, makes excellent shingles and in general use in house-building takes the place of pine. i have seen logs of this species a hundred feet long and two feet in diameter at the upper end. it was named in honor of the old scotch botanist archibald menzies, who came to this coast with vancouver in 1792 23.

the beautiful hemlock spruce with its warm yellow-green foliage is also common in some portions of these woods. it is tall and slender and exceedingly graceful in habit before old age comes on, but the timber is inferior and is seldom used for any other than the roughest work, such as wharf-building.

the western arbor-vitae 24 (thuja gigantea) grows to a size truly gigantic on low rich ground. specimens ten feet in diameter and a hundred and forty feet high are not at all rare. some that i have heard of are said to be fifteen and even eighteen feet thick. clad in rich, glossy plumes, with gray lichens covering their smooth, tapering boles, perfect trees of this species are truly noble objects and well worthy the place they hold in these glorious forests. it is of this tree that the indians make their fine canoes.

of the other conifers that are so happy as to have place here, there are three firs, three or four pines, two cypresses, a yew, and another spruce, the abies pattoniana 25. this last is perhaps the most beautiful of all the spruces, but, being comparatively small and growing only far back on the mountains, it receives but little attention from most people. nor is there room in a work like this for anything like a complete description of it, or of the others i have just mentioned. of the three firs, one (picea grandis) 26, grows near the coast and is one of the largest trees in the forest, sometimes attaining a height of two hundred and fifty feet. the timber, however, is inferior in quality and not much sought after while so much that is better is within reach. one of the others (p. amabilis, var. nobilis) forms magnificent forests by itself at a height of about three thousand to four thousand feet above the sea. the rich plushy, plumelike branches grow in regular whorls around the trunk, and on the topmost whorls, standing erect, are the large, beautiful cones. this is far the most beautiful of all the firs. in the sierra nevada it forms a considerable portion of the main forest belt on the western slope, and it is there that it reaches its greatest size and greatest beauty. the third species (p. subalpina) forms, together with abies pattoniana, the upper edge of the timberline on the portion of the cascades opposite the sound. a thousand feet below the extreme limit of tree growth it occurs in beautiful groups amid parklike openings where flowers grow in extravagant profusion.

the pines are nowhere abundant in the state. the largest, the yellow pine (pinus ponderosa), occurs here and there on margins of dry gravelly prairies, and only in such situations have i yet seen it in this state. the others (p. monticola and p. contorta) are mostly restricted to the upper slopes of the mountains, and though the former of these two attains a good size and makes excellent lumber, it is mostly beyond reach at present and is not abundant. one of the cypresses (cupressus lawsoniana) 27 grows near the coast and is a fine large tree, clothed like the arbor-vitae in a glorious wealth of flat, feathery branches. the other is found here and there well up toward the edge of the timberline. this is the fine alaska cedar (c. nootkatensis), the lumber from which is noted for its durability, fineness of grain, and beautiful yellow color, and for its fragrance, which resembles that of sandalwood. the alaska indians make their canoe paddles of it and weave matting and coarse cloth from the fibrous brown bark.

among the different kinds of hardwood trees are the oak, maple, madrona, birch, alder, and wild apple, while large cottonwoods are common along the rivers and shores of the numerous lakes.

the most striking of these to the traveler is the menzies arbutus, or madrona, as it is popularly called in california. its curious red and yellow bark, large thick glossy leaves, and panicles of waxy-looking greenish-white urn-shaped flowers render it very conspicuous. on the boles of the younger trees and on all the branches, the bark is so smooth and seamless that it does not appear as bark at all, but rather the naked wood. the whole tree, with the exception of the larger part of the trunk, looks as though it had been thoroughly peeled. it is found sparsely scattered along the shores of the sound and back in the forests also on open margins, where the soil is not too wet, and extends up the coast on vancouver island beyond nanaimo. but in no part of the state does it reach anything like the size and beauty of proportions that it attains in california, few trees here being more than ten or twelve inches in diameter and thirty feet high. it is, however, a very remarkable-looking object, standing there like some lost or runaway native of the tropics, naked and painted, beside that dark mossy ocean of northland conifers. not even a palm tree would seem more out of place here.

the oaks, so far as my observation has reached, seem to be most abundant and to grow largest on the islands of the san juan and whidbey archipelago. one of the three species of maples that i have seen is only a bush that makes tangles on the banks of the rivers. of the other two one is a small tree, crooked and moss-grown, holding out its leaves to catch the light that filters down through the close-set spires of the great spruces. it grows almost everywhere throughout the entire extent of the forest until the higher slopes of the mountains are reached, and produces a very picturesque and delightful effect; relieving the bareness of the great shafts of the evergreens, without being close enough in its growth to hide them wholly, or to cover the bright mossy carpet that is spread beneath all the dense parts of the woods.

the other species is also very picturesque and at the same time very large, the largest tree of its kind that i have ever seen anywhere. not even in the great maple woods of canada have i seen trees either as large or with so much striking, picturesque character. it is widely distributed throughout western washington, but is never found scattered among the conifers in the dense woods. it keeps together mostly in magnificent groves by itself on the damp levels along the banks of streams or lakes where the ground is subject to overflow. in such situations it attains a height of seventy-five to a hundred feet and a diameter of four to eight feet. the trunk sends out large limbs toward its neighbors, laden with long drooping mosses beneath and rows of ferns on their upper surfaces, thus making a grand series of richly ornamented interlacing arches, with the leaves laid thick overhead, rendering the underwood spaces delightfully cool and open. never have i seen a finer forest ceiling or a more picturesque one, while the floor, covered with tall ferns and rubus and thrown into hillocks by the bulging roots, matches it well. the largest of these maple groves that i have yet found is on the right bank of the snoqualmie river, about a mile above the falls. the whole country hereabouts is picturesque, and interesting in many ways, and well worthy a visit by tourists passing through the sound region, since it is now accessible by rail from seattle.

looking now at the forests in a comprehensive way, we find in passing through them again and again from the shores of the sound to their upper limits, that some portions are much older than others, the trees much larger, and the ground beneath them strewn with immense trunks in every stage of decay, representing several generations of growth, everything about them giving the impression that these are indeed the "forests primeval," while in the younger portions, where the elevation of the ground is the same as to the sea level and the species of trees are the same as well as the quality of the soil, apart from the moisture which it holds, the trees seem to be and are mostly of the same age, perhaps from one hundred to two or three hundred years, with no gray-bearded, venerable patriarchs—forming tall, majestic woods without any grandfathers.

when we examine the ground we find that it is as free from those mounds of brown crumbling wood and mossy ancient fragments as are the growing trees from very old ones. then perchance, we come upon a section farther up the slopes towards the mountains that has no trees more than fifty years old, or even fifteen or twenty years old. these last show plainly enough that they have been devastated by fire, as the black, melancholy monuments rising here and there above the young growth bear witness. then, with this fiery, suggestive testimony, on examining those sections whose trees are a hundred years old or two hundred, we find the same fire records, though heavily veiled with mosses and lichens, showing that a century or two ago the forests that stood there had been swept away in some tremendous fire at a time when rare conditions of drouth made their burning possible. then, the bare ground sprinkled with the winged seed from the edges of the burned district, a new forest sprang up, nearly every tree starting at the same time or within a few years, thus producing the uniformity of size we find in such places; while, on the other hand, in those sections of ancient aspect containing very old trees both standing and fallen, we find no traces of fire, nor from the extreme dampness of the ground can we see any possibility of fire ever running there.

fire, then, is the great governing agent in forest distribution and to a great extent also in the conditions of forest growth. where fertile lands are very wet one half the year and very dry the other, there can be no forests at all. where the ground is damp, with drouth occurring only at intervals of centuries, fine forests may be found, other conditions being favorable. but it is only where fires never run that truly ancient forests of pitchy coniferous trees may exist. when the washington forests are seen from the deck of a ship out in the middle of the sound, or even from the top of some high, commanding mountain, the woods seem everywhere perfectly solid. and so in fact they are in general found to be. the largest openings are those of the lakes and prairies, the smaller of beaver meadows, bogs, and the rivers; none of them large enough to make a distinct mark in comprehensive views.

of the lakes there are said to be some thirty in king's county alone; the largest, lake washington, being twenty-six miles long and four miles wide. another, which enjoys the duckish name of lake squak, is about ten miles long. both are pure and beautiful, lying imbedded in the green wilderness. the rivers are numerous and are but little affected by the weather, flowing with deep, steady currents the year round. they are short, however, none of them drawing their sources from beyond the cascade range. some are navigable for small steamers on their lower courses, but the openings they make in the woods are very narrow, the tall trees on their banks leaning over in some places, making fine shady tunnels.

the largest of the prairies that i have seen lies to the south of tacoma on the line of the portland and tacoma railroad. the ground is dry and gravelly, a deposit of water-washed cobbles and pebbles derived from moraines—conditions which readily explain the absence of trees here and on other prairies adjacent to yelm. berries grow in lavish abundance, enough for man and beast with thousands of tons to spare. the woods are full of them, especially about the borders of the waters and meadows where the sunshine may enter. nowhere in the north does nature set a more bountiful table. there are huckleberries of many species, red, blue, and black, some of them growing close to the ground, others on bushes eight to ten feet high; also salal berries, growing on a low, weak-stemmed bush, a species of gaultheria, seldom more than a foot or two high. this has pale pea-green glossy leaves two or three inches long and half an inch wide and beautiful pink flowers, urn-shaped, that make a fine, rich show. the berries are black when ripe, are extremely abundant, and, with the huckleberries, form an important part of the food of the indians, who beat them into paste, dry them, and store them away for winter use, to be eaten with their oily fish. the salmon-berry also is very plentiful, growing in dense prickly tangles. the flowers are as large as wild roses and of the same color, and the berries measure nearly an inch in diameter. besides these there are gooseberries, currants, raspberries, blackberries, and, in some favored spots, strawberries. the mass of the underbrush of the woods is made up in great part of these berry-bearing bushes. together with white-flowered spiraea twenty feet high, hazel, dogwood, wild rose, honeysuckle, symphoricarpus, etc. but in the depths of the woods, where little sunshine can reach the ground, there is but little underbrush of any kind, only a very light growth of huckleberry and rubus and young maples in most places. the difficulties encountered by the explorer in penetrating the wilderness are presented mostly by the streams and bogs, with their tangled margins, and the fallen timber and thick carpet of moss covering all the ground.

notwithstanding the tremendous energy displayed in lumbering and the grand scale on which it is being carried on, and the number of settlers pushing into every opening in search of farmlands, the woods of washington are still almost entirely virgin and wild, without trace of human touch, savage or civilized. indians, no doubt, have ascended most of the rivers on their way to the mountains to hunt the wild sheep and goat to obtain wool for their clothing, but with food in abundance on the coast they had little to tempt them into the wilderness, and the monuments they have left in it are scarcely more conspicuous than those of squirrels and bears; far less so than those of the beavers, which in damming the streams have made clearings and meadows which will continue to mark the landscape for centuries. nor is there much in these woods to tempt the farmer or cattle raiser. a few settlers established homes on the prairies or open borders of the woods and in the valleys of the chehalis and cowlitz before the gold days of california. most of the early immigrants from the eastern states, however, settled in the fertile and open willamette valley or oregon. even now, when the search for land is so keen, with the exception of the bottom lands around the sound and on the lower reaches of the rivers, there are comparatively few spots of cultivation in western washington. on every meadow or opening of any kind some one will be found keeping cattle, planting hop vines, or raising hay, vegetables, and patches of grain. all the large spaces available, even back near the summits of the cascade mountains, were occupied long ago. the newcomers, building their cabins where the beavers once built theirs, keep a few cows and industriously seek to enlarge their small meadow patches by chopping, girdling, and burning the edge of the encircling forest, gnawing like beavers, and scratching for a living among the blackened stumps and logs, regarding the trees as their greatest enemies—a sort of larger pernicious weed immensely difficult to get rid of.

but all these are as yet mere spots, making no visible scar in the distance and leaving the grand stretches of the forest as wild as they were before the discovery of the continent. for many years the axe has been busy around the shores of the sound and ships have been falling in perpetual storm like flakes of snow. the best of the timber has been cut for a distance of eight or ten miles from the water and to a much greater distance along the streams deep enough to float the logs. railroads, too, have been built to fetch in the logs from the best bodies of timber otherwise inaccessible except at great cost. none of the ground, however, has been completely denuded. most of the young trees have been left, together with the hemlocks and other trees undesirable in kind or in some way defective, so that the neighboring trees appear to have closed over the gaps make by the removal of the larger and better ones, maintaining the general continuity of the forest and leaving no sign on the sylvan sea, at least as seen from a distance.

in felling the trees they cut them off usually at a height of six to twelve feet above the ground, so as to avoid cutting through the swollen base, where the diameter is so much greater. in order to reach this height the chopper cuts a notch about two inches wide and three or four deep and drives a board into it, on which he stands while at work. in case the first notch, cut as high as he can reach, is not high enough, he stands on the board that has been driven into the first notch and cuts another. thus the axeman may often be seen at work standing eight or ten feet above the ground. if the tree is so large that with his long-handled axe the chopper is unable to reach to the farther side of it, then a second chopper is set to work, each cutting halfway across. and when the tree is about to fall, warned by the faint crackling of the strained fibers, they jump to the ground, and stand back out of danger from flying limbs, while the noble giant that had stood erect in glorious strength and beauty century after century, bows low at last and with gasp and groan and booming throb falls to earth.

then with long saws the trees are cut into logs of the required length, peeled, loaded upon wagons capable of carrying a weight of eight or ten tons, hauled by a long string of oxen to the nearest available stream or railroad, and floated or carried to the sound. there the logs are gathered into booms and towed by steamers to the mills, where workmen with steel spikes in their boots leap lightly with easy poise from one to another and by means of long pike poles push them apart and, selecting such as are at the time required, push them to the foot of a chute and drive dogs into the ends, when they are speedily hauled in by the mill machinery alongside the saw carriage and placed and fixed in position. then with sounds of greedy hissing and growling they are rushed back and forth like enormous shuttles, and in an incredibly short time they are lumber and are aboard the ships lying at the mill wharves.

many of the long, slender boles so abundant in these woods are saved for spars, and so excellent is their quality that they are in demand in almost every shipyard of the world. thus these trees, felled and stripped of their leaves and branches, are raised again, transplanted and set firmly erect, given roots of iron and a new foliage of flapping canvas, and sent to sea. on they speed in glad, free motion, cheerily waving over the blue, heaving water, responsive to the same winds that rocked them when they stood at home in the woods. after standing in one place all their lives they now, like sight-seeing tourists, go round the world, meeting many a relative from the old home forest, some like themselves, wandering free, clad in broad canvas foliage, others planted head downward in mud, holding wharf platforms aloft to receive the wares of all nations.

the mills of puget sound and those of the redwood region of california are said to be the largest and most effective lumber-makers in the world. tacoma alone claims to have eleven sawmills, and seattle about as many; while at many other points on the sound, where the conditions are particularly favorable, there are immense lumbering establishments, as at ports blakely, madison, discovery, gamble, ludlow, etc., with a capacity all together of over three million feet a day. nevertheless, the observer coming up the sound sees not nor hears anything of this fierce storm of steel that is devouring the forests, save perhaps the shriek of some whistle or the columns of smoke that mark the position of the mills. all else seems as serene and unscathed as the silent watching mountains.