opposition to napoleon—the establishment of the empire—king of italy
while the preparation for the invasion was going on, the feeling against england was intensified by the discovery of a plot against the life of the first consul. georges cadoudal, a fanatical royalist, who was accused of being connected with the plot of the 3d niv?se (december 24), and who had since been in england, had formed a gigantic conspiracy, having as its object nothing less than the assassination of napoleon in broad daylight, in the streets of paris.
he had secured powerful aid to carry out his plan. the bourbon princes supported him, and one of them was to land on the north coast and put himself at the head of the royalist sympathizers as soon as the first consul was killed. in this plot was associated pichegru, who had been connected with the 18th fructidor. general moreau, the hero of hohenlinden, was suspected of knowing something of it.
it came to light in time, and a general arrest was made of those suspected of being privy to it. the first to be tried and punished was the duc d’enghien, who had been seized at ettenheim, in baden, a short distance from the french frontier, on the supposition that he had been coming secretly to paris to be present at the meetings of the conspirators. his trial at vincennes was short, his execution immediate. there is good reason to believe that napoleon had no suspicion that the duc d’enghien would be executed so soon as 152he was, and even to suppose that he would have lightened the sentence if the punishment had not been pushed on with an irregularity and inhumanity that recalls the days of the terror.
the execution was a severe blow to napoleon’s popularity, both at home and abroad. fouché’s cynical remark was just: “the death of the duc d’enghien is worse than a crime; it is a blunder.” chateaubriand, who had accepted a foreign embassy, resigned at once, and a number of the old aristocracy, such as pasquier and molé, who had been saying among themselves that it was their duty to support napoleon’s splendid work of reorganization, went back into obscurity. in society the effect was distressing. the members of napoleon’s own household met him with averted faces and sad countenances, and josephine wept until he called her a child who understood nothing of politics. abroad there was a revulsion of sympathy, particularly in the cabinets of russia, prussia, and austria.
the trial of cadoudal and moreau followed. the former with several of his accomplices was executed. moreau was exiled for two years. pichegru committed suicide in the temple.
this plot showed napoleon and his friends that a jacobin or royalist fanatic might any day end the life upon which the scheme of reorganization depended. it is true he had already been made first consul for life by a practically unanimous vote, but there was need of strengthening his position and providing a succession. in march, six days after the death of the duc d’enghien, the senate proposed to him that he complete his work and take the throne. in april the council of state and the tribunate took up the discussion. the opinion of the majority was voiced by regnault de saint jean d’angély: “it is a long time since all reasonable men, all true friends of their country, have wished that the first 153consul would make himself emperor, and re?stablish, in favor of his family, the old principles of hereditary succession. it is the only means of securing permanency for his own fortune, and to the men whom merit has raised to high offices. the republic, which i loved passionately, while i detested the crimes of the revolution, is now in my eyes a mere utopia. the first consul has convinced me that he wishes to possess supreme power only to render france great, free, and happy, and to protect her against the fury of factions.”
the senate soon after proceeded in a body to the tuileries. “you have extricated us from the chaos of the past,” said the spokesman; “you enable us to enjoy the blessings of the present; guarantee to us the future.” on the 18th of may, 1804, when thirty-five years old, napoleon was first addressed as “sire,” and congratulated on his elevation to the throne of the french people.
immediately his household took on the forms of royalty. his mother was madame mère; joseph, grand elector, with the title of imperial highness; louis, constable, with the same title; his sisters were imperial highnesses. titles were given to all officials; the ministers were excellencies; cambacérès and le brun, the second and third consuls, became arch-chancellor and arch-treasurer of the empire. of his generals, berthier, murat, moncey, jourdan, masséna, augereau, bernadotte, soult, brune, lannes, mortier, ney, davoust, and bessières were made marshals. the red button of the legion of honor was scattered in profusion. the title of citoyen, which had been consecrated by the revolution, was dropped, and hereafter everybody was called monsieur.
two of napoleon’s brothers, unhappily, had no part in these honors. jerome, who had been serving as lieutenant in the navy, had, in 1803, while in the united states, married 154a miss elizabeth patterson of baltimore. napoleon forbade the recording of the marriage, and declared it void. as jerome had not as yet given up his wife, he had no share in the imperial rewards. lucien was likewise omitted, and for a similar reason. his first wife had died in 1801, and much against napoleon’s wishes he had married a madame jouberthon, to whom he was deeply attached; nothing could induce him to renounce his wife and take the queen of etruria, as napoleon wished. the result of his refusal was a violent quarrel between the brothers, and lucien left france.
this rupture was certainly a grief to napoleon. madame de rémusat draws a pathetic little picture of the effect upon him of the last interview with lucien:
“it was near midnight when bonaparte came into the room; he was deeply dejected, and, throwing himself into an arm-chair, he exclaimed in a troubled voice, ‘it is all over! i have broken with lucien, and ordered him from my presence.’ madame bonaparte began to expostulate. ‘you are a good woman,’ he said, ‘to plead for him.’ then he rose from his chair, took his wife in his arms, and laid her head softly on his shoulder, and with his hand still resting on the beautiful head, which formed a contrast to the sad, set countenance so near it, he told us that lucien had resisted all his entreaties, and that he had resorted equally in vain to both threats and persuasion. ‘it is hard, though,’ he added, ‘to find in one’s own family such stubborn opposition to interests of such magnitude. must i, then, isolate myself from every one? must i rely on myself alone? well! i will suffice to myself; and you, josephine—you will be my comfort always.’”
a fever of etiquette seized on all the inhabitants of the imperial palace of saint cloud. the ponderous regulations of louis xiv. were taken down from the shelves in the library, and from them a code began to be compiled. madame campan, who had been first bedchamber woman to marie antoinette, was summoned to interpret the solemn law, and to describe costumes and customs. monsieur de talleyrand, who had been made grand chamberlain, was an authority who was consulted on everything.
155“we all felt ourselves more or less elevated,” says madame de rémusat. “vanity is ingenious in its expectations, and ours were unlimited. sometimes it was disenchanting, for a moment, to observe the almost ridiculous effect which this agitation produced upon certain classes of society. those who had nothing to do with our brand new dignities said with montaigne, ‘let us avenge ourselves by railing at them.’ jests, more or less witty, and puns, more or less ingenious, were lavished on these new-made princes, and somewhat disturbed our brilliant visions; but the number of those who dare to censure success is small, and flattery was much more common than criticism.”
no one was more severe in matters of etiquette than napoleon himself. he studied the subject with the same attention that he did the civil code, and in much the same way. “in concert with monsieur de ségur,” he wrote de champagny, “you must write me a report as to the way in which ministers and ambassadors should be received.... it will be well for you to enlighten me as to what was the practice at versailles, and what is done at vienna and st. petersburg. once my regulations adopted, everyone must conform to them. i am master, to establish what rules i like in france.”
he had some difficulty with his old comrades-in-arms, who were accustomed to addressing him in the familiar second singular, and calling him bonaparte, and who persisted, occasionally, even after he was “sire,” in using the language of easy intimacy. lannes was even removed for some time from his place near the emperor for an indiscretion of this kind.
in august, 1804, the new emperor visited boulogne to receive the congratulations of his army and distribute decorations. his visit was celebrated by a magnificent fête. those who know the locality of boulogne, remember, north 156of the town, an amphitheatre-like plain, in the centre of which is a hill. in this plain sixty thousand men were camped. on the elevation was erected a throne. hereby stood the chair of dagobert; behind it the armor of francis i.; and around rose scores of blood-stained, bullet-shot flags, the trophies of italy and egypt. beside the emperor was the helmet of bayard, filled with the decorations to be distributed. up and down the coast were the french batteries; in the port lay the flotilla; to the right and left stretched the splendid army.
just as the ceremonies were finished, a fleet of over a thousand boats came sailing into the harbor to join those already there, while out in the channel english officers and sailors, with levelled glasses, watched from their vessels the splendid armament, which was celebrating its approaching descent on their shores.
on december 1st the senate presented the emperor the result of the vote taken among the people as to whether hereditary succession should be adopted. there were two thousand five hundred and seventy-nine votes against; three million five hundred and seventy-five thousand for—a vote more nearly unanimous than that for the life consulate, there being something like nine thousand against him then.
the next day napoleon was crowned at notre dame. the ceremony was prepared with the greatest care. grand master of ceremonies de ségur, aided by the painter david, drew up the plan and trained the court with great severity in the etiquette of the occasion. he had the widest liberty, it even being provided that “if it be indispensable, in order that the cortége arrive at notre dame with greater facility, to pull down some houses,” it should be done. by a master stroke of diplomacy napoleon had persuaded pope pius vii. to cross the alps to perform for him the solemn and ancient service of coronation.
157of this ceremony we have no better description than that of madame junot:
“who that saw notre dame on that memorable day can ever forget it? i have witnessed in that venerable pile the celebration of sumptuous and solemn festivals; but never did i see anything at all approximating in splendor the spectacle exhibited at napoleon’s coronation. the vaulted roof re-echoed the sacred chanting of the priests, who invoked the blessing of the almighty on the ceremony about to be celebrated, while they awaited the arrival of the vicar of christ, whose throne was prepared near the altar. along the ancient walls covered with magnificent tapestry were ranged, according to their rank, the different bodies of the state, the deputies from every city; in short, the representatives of all france assembled to implore the benediction of heaven on the sovereign of the people’s choice. the waving plumes which adorned the hats of the senators, counsellors of state, and tribunes; the splendid uniforms of the military; the clergy in all their ecclesiastical pomp; and the multitude of young and beautiful women, glittering in jewels, and arrayed in that style of grace and elegance which is only seen in paris;—altogether presented a picture which has, perhaps, rarely been equalled, and certainly never excelled.
“the pope arrived first; and at the moment of his entering the cathedral, the anthem tu es petrus was commenced. his holiness advanced from the door with an air at once majestic and humble. ere long, the firing of a cannon announced the departure of the procession from the tuileries. from an early hour in the morning the weather had been exceeding unfavorable. it was cold and rainy, and appearances seemed to indicate that the procession would be anything but agreeable to those who joined it. but, as if by the especial favor of providence, of which so many instances are observable in the career of napoleon, the clouds suddenly dispersed, the sky brightened up, and the multitudes who lined the streets from the tuileries to the cathedral, enjoyed the sight of the procession without being, as they had anticipated, drenched by a december rain. napoleon, as he passed along, was greeted by heartfelt expressions of enthusiastic love and attachment.
158
napoleon with the iron crown of lombardy.
designed and engraved by longhi, in 1812, for “vite e ritratti di illustri italiani.”
159“on his arrival at notre dame, napoleon ascended the throne, which was erected in front of the grand altar. josephine took her place beside him, surrounded by the assembled sovereigns of europe. napoleon appeared singularly calm. i watched him narrowly, with a view of discovering whether his heart beat more highly beneath the imperial trappings than under the uniform of the guards; but i could observe no difference, and yet i was at the distance of only ten paces from him. the length of the ceremony, however, seemed to weary him; and i saw him several times check a yawn. nevertheless, he did everything he was required to do, and did it with propriety. when the pope anointed him with the triple unction on his head and both hands, i fancied, from the direction of his eyes, that he was thinking of wiping off the oil rather than of anything else; and i was so perfectly acquainted with the workings of his countenance, that i have no hesitation in saying that was really the thought that crossed his mind at that moment. during the ceremony of anointing, the holy father delivered that impressive prayer which concluded with these words: ‘diffuse, o lord, by my hands, the treasures of your grace and benediction on your servant napoleon, whom, in spite of our personal unworthiness, we this day anoint emperor, in your name.’ napoleon listened to this prayer with an air of pious devotion; but just as the pope was about to take the crown, called the crown of charlemagne, from the altar, napoleon seized it, and placed it on his own head. at that moment he was really handsome, and his countenance was lighted up with an expression of which no words can convey an idea.
“he had removed the wreath of laurel which he wore on entering the church, and which encircles his brow in the fine picture of gérard. the crown was, perhaps, in itself, less becoming to him; but the expression excited by the act of putting it on, rendered him perfectly handsome.
“when the moment arrived for josephine to take an active part in the grand drama, she descended from the throne and advanced towards the altar, where the emperor awaited her, followed by her retinue of court ladies, and having her train borne by the princesses caroline, julie, eliza, and louis. one of the chief beauties of the empress josephine was not merely her fine figure, but the elegant turn of her neck, and the way in which she carried her head; indeed, her deportment altogether was conspicuous for dignity and grace. i have had the honor of being presented to many real princesses, to use the phrase of the faubourg saint-germain, but i never saw one who, to my eyes, presented so perfect a personification of elegance and majesty. in napoleon’s countenance i could read the conviction of all i have just said. he looked with an air of complacency at the empress as she advanced towards him; and when she knelt down, when the tears, which she could not repress, fell upon her clasped hands, as they were raised to heaven, or rather to napoleon, both then appeared to enjoy one of those fleeting moments of pure felicity which are unique in a lifetime, and serve to fill up a lustrum of years. the emperor performed, with peculiar grace, every action required of him during the ceremony; but his manner of crowning josephine was most remarkable: after receiving the small crown, surmounted by the cross, he had first to place it on his own head, and then to transfer it to that of the empress. when the moment arrived for placing the crown on the head of the woman whom 160popular superstition regarded as his good genius, his manner was almost playful. he took great pains to arrange this little crown, which was placed over josephine’s tiara of diamonds; he put it on, then took it off, and finally put it on again, as if to promise her she should wear it gracefully and lightly.”
the fate of france had no sooner been settled, as napoleon believed, than it became necessary to decide on what should be done with italy. the crown was offered to joseph, who refused it. he did not want to renounce his claim to that of france, and finally napoleon decided to take it himself. a new constitution was prepared for the country by the french senate, and, when all was arranged, napoleon started on april 1st for italy. a great train accompanied him, and the trip was of especial interest. the party crossed the alps by mont cenis, and the road was so bad that the carriages had to be taken to pieces and carried over, while the travellers walked. this trip really led to the fine roads which now cross mont cenis. at alessandria napoleon halted, and on the field of marengo ordered a review of the man?uvres of the famous battle. at this review he even wore the coat and hat he had worn on that famous day four years before.
by the time the imperial party was ready to enter milan, on may 13, it had increased to a triumphal procession, and the entry was attended by most enthusiastic demonstrations. on may 26 the coronation took place. the iron crown, used so long for the coronation of the lombard kings, had been brought out for the occasion. when the point in the ceremony was reached where the crown was to be placed on napoleon’s head, he seized it, and with his own hands placed it on his head, repeating in a loud voice the words inscribed on the crown: “god gives it to me; beware who touches it.” josephine was not crowned queen of italy, but watched the scene from a gallery above the altar.
161napoleon remained in italy for another month, engaged in settling the affairs of the country. the order of the crown of iron was created, the constitution settled, prince eugène was made viceroy, and genoa was joined to the empire.
162
napoleon reviewing his guards.
lithograph by raffet.