when the revolution which subverts the social and political state of an aristocratic people begins to penetrate into literature, it generally first manifests itself in the drama, and it always remains conspicuous there. the spectator of a dramatic piece is, to a certain extent, taken by surprise by the impression it conveys. he has no time to refer to his memory, or to consult those more able to judge than himself. it does not occur to him to resist the new literary tendencies which begin to be felt by him; he yields to them before he knows what they are. authors are very prompt in discovering which way the taste of the public is thus secretly inclined. they shape their productions accordingly; and the literature of the stage, after having served to indicate the approaching literary revolution, speedily completes its accomplishment. if you would judge beforehand of the literature of a people which is lapsing into democracy, study its dramatic productions.

the literature of the stage, moreover, even amongst aristocratic nations, constitutes the most democratic part of their literature. no kind of literary gratification is so much within the reach of the multitude as that which is derived from theatrical representations. neither preparation nor study is required to enjoy them: they lay hold on you in the midst of your prejudices and your ignorance. when the yet untutored love of the pleasures of the mind begins to affect a class of the community, it instantly draws them to the stage. the theatres of aristocratic nations have always been filled with spectators not belonging to the aristocracy. at the theatre alone the higher ranks mix with the middle and the lower classes; there alone do the former consent to listen to the opinion of the latter, or at least to allow them to give an opinion at all. at the theatre, men of cultivation and of literary attainments have always had more difficulty than elsewhere in making their taste prevail over that of the people, and in preventing themselves from being carried away by the latter. the pit has frequently made laws for the boxes.

if it be difficult for an aristocracy to prevent the people from getting the upper hand in the theatre, it will readily be understood that the people will be supreme there when democratic principles have crept into the laws and manners—when ranks are intermixed—when minds, as well as fortunes, are brought more nearly together—and when the upper class has lost, with its hereditary wealth, its power, its precedents, and its leisure. the tastes and propensities natural to democratic nations, in respect to literature, will therefore first be discernible in the drama, and it may be foreseen that they will break out there with vehemence. in written productions, the literary canons of aristocracy will be gently, gradually, and, so to speak, legally modified; at the theatre they will be riotously overthrown. the drama brings out most of the good qualities, and almost all the defects, inherent in democratic literature. democratic peoples hold erudition very cheap, and care but little for what occurred at rome and athens; they want to hear something which concerns themselves, and the delineation of the present age is what they demand.

when the heroes and the manners of antiquity are frequently brought upon the stage, and dramatic authors faithfully observe the rules of antiquated precedent, that is enough to warrant a conclusion that the democratic classes have not yet got the upper hand of the theatres. racine makes a very humble apology in the preface to the "britannicus" for having disposed of junia amongst the vestals, who, according to aulus gellius, he says, "admitted no one below six years of age nor above ten." we may be sure that he would neither have accused himself of the offence, nor defended himself from censure, if he had written for our contemporaries. a fact of this kind not only illustrates the state of literature at the time when it occurred, but also that of society itself. a democratic stage does not prove that the nation is in a state of democracy, for, as we have just seen, even in aristocracies it may happen that democratic tastes affect the drama; but when the spirit of aristocracy reigns exclusively on the stage, the fact irrefragably demonstrates that the whole of society is aristocratic; and it may be boldly inferred that the same lettered and learned class which sways the dramatic writers commands the people and governs the country.

the refined tastes and the arrogant bearing of an aristocracy will rarely fail to lead it, when it manages the stage, to make a kind of selection in human nature. some of the conditions of society claim its chief interest; and the scenes which delineate their manners are preferred upon the stage. certain virtues, and even certain vices, are thought more particularly to deserve to figure there; and they are applauded whilst all others are excluded. upon the stage, as well as elsewhere, an aristocratic audience will only meet personages of quality, and share the emotions of kings. the same thing applies to style: an aristocracy is apt to impose upon dramatic authors certain modes of expression which give the key in which everything is to be delivered. by these means the stage frequently comes to delineate only one side of man, or sometimes even to represent what is not to be met with in human nature at all—to rise above nature and to go beyond it.

in democratic communities the spectators have no such partialities, and they rarely display any such antipathies: they like to see upon the stage that medley of conditions, of feelings, and of opinions, which occurs before their eyes. the drama becomes more striking, more common, and more true. sometimes, however, those who write for the stage in democracies also transgress the bounds of human nature—but it is on a different side from their predecessors. by seeking to represent in minute detail the little singularities of the moment and the peculiar characteristics of certain personages, they forget to portray the general features of the race.

when the democratic classes rule the stage, they introduce as much license in the manner of treating subjects as in the choice of them. as the love of the drama is, of all literary tastes, that which is most natural to democratic nations, the number of authors and of spectators, as well as of theatrical representations, is constantly increasing amongst these communities. a multitude composed of elements so different, and scattered in so many different places, cannot acknowledge the same rules or submit to the same laws. no concurrence is possible amongst judges so numerous, who know not when they may meet again; and therefore each pronounces his own sentence on the piece. if the effect of democracy is generally to question the authority of all literary rules and conventions, on the stage it abolishes them altogether, and puts in their place nothing but the whim of each author and of each public.

the drama also displays in an especial manner the truth of what i have said before in speaking more generally of style and art in democratic literature. in reading the criticisms which were occasioned by the dramatic productions of the age of louis xiv, one is surprised to remark the great stress which the public laid on the probability of the plot, and the importance which was attached to the perfect consistency of the characters, and to their doing nothing which could not be easily explained and understood. the value which was set upon the forms of language at that period, and the paltry strife about words with which dramatic authors were assailed, are no less surprising. it would seem that the men of the age of louis xiv attached very exaggerated importance to those details, which may be perceived in the study, but which escape attention on the stage. for, after all, the principal object of a dramatic piece is to be performed, and its chief merit is to affect the audience. but the audience and the readers in that age were the same: on quitting the theatre they called up the author for judgment to their own firesides. in democracies, dramatic pieces are listened to, but not read. most of those who frequent the amusements of the stage do not go there to seek the pleasures of the mind, but the keen emotions of the heart. they do not expect to hear a fine literary work, but to see a play; and provided the author writes the language of his country correctly enough to be understood, and that his characters excite curiosity and awaken sympathy, the audience are satisfied. they ask no more of fiction, and immediately return to real life. accuracy of style is therefore less required, because the attentive observance of its rules is less perceptible on the stage. as for the probability of the plot, it is incompatible with perpetual novelty, surprise, and rapidity of invention. it is therefore neglected, and the public excuses the neglect. you may be sure that if you succeed in bringing your audience into the presence of something that affects them, they will not care by what road you brought them there; and they will never reproach you for having excited their emotions in spite of dramatic rules.

the americans very broadly display all the different propensities which i have here described when they go to the theatres; but it must be acknowledged that as yet a very small number of them go to theatres at all. although playgoers and plays have prodigiously increased in the united states in the last forty years, the population indulges in this kind of amusement with the greatest reserve. this is attributable to peculiar causes, which the reader is already acquainted with, and of which a few words will suffice to remind him. the puritans who founded the american republics were not only enemies to amusements, but they professed an especial abhorrence for the stage. they considered it as an abominable pastime; and as long as their principles prevailed with undivided sway, scenic performances were wholly unknown amongst them. these opinions of the first fathers of the colony have left very deep marks on the minds of their descendants. the extreme regularity of habits and the great strictness of manners which are observable in the united states, have as yet opposed additional obstacles to the growth of dramatic art. there are no dramatic subjects in a country which has witnessed no great political catastrophes, and in which love invariably leads by a straight and easy road to matrimony. people who spend every day in the week in making money, and the sunday in going to church, have nothing to invite the muse of comedy.

a single fact suffices to show that the stage is not very popular in the united states. the americans, whose laws allow of the utmost freedom and even license of language in all other respects, have nevertheless subjected their dramatic authors to a sort of censorship. theatrical performances can only take place by permission of the municipal authorities. this may serve to show how much communities are like individuals; they surrender themselves unscrupulously to their ruling passions, and afterwards take the greatest care not to yield too much to the vehemence of tastes which they do not possess.

no portion of literature is connected by closer or more numerous ties with the present condition of society than the drama. the drama of one period can never be suited to the following age, if in the interval an important revolution has changed the manners and the laws of the nation. the great authors of a preceding age may be read; but pieces written for a different public will not be followed. the dramatic authors of the past live only in books. the traditional taste of certain individuals, vanity, fashion, or the genius of an actor may sustain or resuscitate for a time the aristocratic drama amongst a democracy; but it will speedily fall away of itself—not overthrown, but abandoned.