if the reader has rightly understood what i have already said on the subject of literature in general, he will have no difficulty in comprehending that species of influence which a democratic social condition and democratic institutions may exercise over language itself, which is the chief instrument of thought.

american authors may truly be said to live more in england than in their own country; since they constantly study the english writers, and take them every day for their models. but such is not the case with the bulk of the population, which is more immediately subjected to the peculiar causes acting upon the united states. it is not then to the written, but to the spoken language that attention must be paid, if we would detect the modifications which the idiom of an aristocratic people may undergo when it becomes the language of a democracy.

englishmen of education, and more competent judges than i can be myself of the nicer shades of expression, have frequently assured me that the language of the educated classes in the united states is notably different from that of the educated classes in great britain. they complain not only that the americans have brought into use a number of new words—the difference and the distance between the two countries might suffice to explain that much—but that these new words are more especially taken from the jargon of parties, the mechanical arts, or the language of trade. they assert, in addition to this, that old english words are often used by the americans in new acceptations; and lastly, that the inhabitants of the united states frequently intermingle their phraseology in the strangest manner, and sometimes place words together which are always kept apart in the language of the mother-country. these remarks, which were made to me at various times by persons who appeared to be worthy of credit, led me to reflect upon the subject; and my reflections brought me, by theoretical reasoning, to the same point at which my informants had arrived by practical observation.

in aristocracies, language must naturally partake of that state of repose in which everything remains. few new words are coined, because few new things are made; and even if new things were made, they would be designated by known words, whose meaning has been determined by tradition. if it happens that the human mind bestirs itself at length, or is roused by light breaking in from without, the novel expressions which are introduced are characterized by a degree of learning, intelligence, and philosophy, which shows that they do not originate in a democracy. after the fall of constantinople had turned the tide of science and literature towards the west, the french language was almost immediately invaded by a multitude of new words, which had all greek or latin roots. an erudite neologism then sprang up in france which was confined to the educated classes, and which produced no sensible effect, or at least a very gradual one, upon the people. all the nations of europe successively exhibited the same change. milton alone introduced more than six hundred words into the english language, almost all derived from the latin, the greek, or the hebrew. the constant agitation which prevails in a democratic community tends unceasingly, on the contrary, to change the character of the language, as it does the aspect of affairs. in the midst of this general stir and competition of minds, a great number of new ideas are formed, old ideas are lost, or reappear, or are subdivided into an infinite variety of minor shades. the consequence is, that many words must fall into desuetude, and others must be brought into use.

democratic nations love change for its own sake; and this is seen in their language as much as in their politics. even when they do not need to change words, they sometimes feel a wish to transform them. the genius of a democratic people is not only shown by the great number of words they bring into use, but also by the nature of the ideas these new words represent. amongst such a people the majority lays down the law in language as well as in everything else; its prevailing spirit is as manifest in that as in other respects. but the majority is more engaged in business than in study—in political and commercial interests than in philosophical speculation or literary pursuits. most of the words coined or adopted for its use will therefore bear the mark of these habits; they will mainly serve to express the wants of business, the passions of party, or the details of the public administration. in these departments the language will constantly spread, whilst on the other hand it will gradually lose ground in metaphysics and theology.

as to the source from which democratic nations are wont to derive their new expressions, and the manner in which they go to work to coin them, both may easily be described. men living in democratic countries know but little of the language which was spoken at athens and at rome, and they do not care to dive into the lore of antiquity to find the expression they happen to want. if they have sometimes recourse to learned etymologies, vanity will induce them to search at the roots of the dead languages; but erudition does not naturally furnish them with its resources. the most ignorant, it sometimes happens, will use them most. the eminently democratic desire to get above their own sphere will often lead them to seek to dignify a vulgar profession by a greek or latin name. the lower the calling is, and the more remote from learning, the more pompous and erudite is its appellation. thus the french rope-dancers have transformed themselves into acrobates and funambules.

in the absence of knowledge of the dead languages, democratic nations are apt to borrow words from living tongues; for their mutual intercourse becomes perpetual, and the inhabitants of different countries imitate each other the more readily as they grow more like each other every day.

but it is principally upon their own languages that democratic nations attempt to perpetrate innovations. from time to time they resume forgotten expressions in their vocabulary, which they restore to use; or they borrow from some particular class of the community a term peculiar to it, which they introduce with a figurative meaning into the language of daily life. many expressions which originally belonged to the technical language of a profession or a party, are thus drawn into general circulation.

the most common expedient employed by democratic nations to make an innovation in language consists in giving some unwonted meaning to an expression already in use. this method is very simple, prompt, and convenient; no learning is required to use it aright, and ignorance itself rather facilitates the practice; but that practice is most dangerous to the language. when a democratic people doubles the meaning of a word in this way, they sometimes render the signification which it retains as ambiguous as that which it acquires. an author begins by a slight deflection of a known expression from its primitive meaning, and he adapts it, thus modified, as well as he can to his subject. a second writer twists the sense of the expression in another way; a third takes possession of it for another purpose; and as there is no common appeal to the sentence of a permanent tribunal which may definitely settle the signification of the word, it remains in an ambiguous condition. the consequence is that writers hardly ever appear to dwell upon a single thought, but they always seem to point their aim at a knot of ideas, leaving the reader to judge which of them has been hit. this is a deplorable consequence of democracy. i had rather that the language should be made hideous with words imported from the chinese, the tartars, or the hurons, than that the meaning of a word in our own language should become indeterminate. harmony and uniformity are only secondary beauties in composition; many of these things are conventional, and, strictly speaking, it is possible to forego them; but without clear phraseology there is no good language.

the principle of equality necessarily introduces several other changes into language. in aristocratic ages, when each nation tends to stand aloof from all others and likes to have distinct characteristics of its own, it often happens that several peoples which have a common origin become nevertheless estranged from each other, so that, without ceasing to understand the same language, they no longer all speak it in the same manner. in these ages each nation is divided into a certain number of classes, which see but little of each other, and do not intermingle. each of these classes contracts, and invariably retains, habits of mind peculiar to itself, and adopts by choice certain words and certain terms, which afterwards pass from generation to generation, like their estates. the same idiom then comprises a language of the poor and a language of the rich—a language of the citizen and a language of the nobility—a learned language and a vulgar one. the deeper the divisions, and the more impassable the barriers of society become, the more must this be the case. i would lay a wager, that amongst the castes of india there are amazing variations of language, and that there is almost as much difference between the language of the pariah and that of the brahmin as there is in their dress. when, on the contrary, men, being no longer restrained by ranks, meet on terms of constant intercourse—when castes are destroyed, and the classes of society are recruited and intermixed with each other, all the words of a language are mingled. those which are unsuitable to the greater number perish; the remainder form a common store, whence everyone chooses pretty nearly at random. almost all the different dialects which divided the idioms of european nations are manifestly declining; there is no patois in the new world, and it is disappearing every day from the old countries.

the influence of this revolution in social conditions is as much felt in style as it is in phraseology. not only does everyone use the same words, but a habit springs up of using them without discrimination. the rules which style had set up are almost abolished: the line ceases to be drawn between expressions which seem by their very nature vulgar, and other which appear to be refined. persons springing from different ranks of society carry the terms and expressions they are accustomed to use with them, into whatever circumstances they may pass; thus the origin of words is lost like the origin of individuals, and there is as much confusion in language as there is in society.

i am aware that in the classification of words there are rules which do not belong to one form of society any more than to another, but which are derived from the nature of things. some expressions and phrases are vulgar, because the ideas they are meant to express are low in themselves; others are of a higher character, because the objects they are intended to designate are naturally elevated. no intermixture of ranks will ever efface these differences. but the principle of equality cannot fail to root out whatever is merely conventional and arbitrary in the forms of thought. perhaps the necessary classification which i pointed out in the last sentence will always be less respected by a democratic people than by any other, because amongst such a people there are no men who are permanently disposed by education, culture, and leisure to study the natural laws of language, and who cause those laws to be respected by their own observance of them.

i shall not quit this topic without touching on a feature of democratic languages, which is perhaps more characteristic of them than any other. it has already been shown that democratic nations have a taste, and sometimes a passion, for general ideas, and that this arises from their peculiar merits and defects. this liking for general ideas is displayed in democratic languages by the continual use of generic terms or abstract expressions, and by the manner in which they are employed. this is the great merit and the great imperfection of these languages. democratic nations are passionately addicted to generic terms or abstract expressions, because these modes of speech enlarge thought, and assist the operations of the mind by enabling it to include several objects in a small compass. a french democratic writer will be apt to say capacites in the abstract for men of capacity, and without particularizing the objects to which their capacity is applied: he will talk about actualities to designate in one word the things passing before his eyes at the instant; and he will comprehend under the term eventualities whatever may happen in the universe, dating from the moment at which he speaks. democratic writers are perpetually coining words of this kind, in which they sublimate into further abstraction the abstract terms of the language. nay, more, to render their mode of speech more succinct, they personify the subject of these abstract terms, and make it act like a real entity. thus they would say in french, "la force des choses veut que les capacites gouvernent."

i cannot better illustrate what i mean than by my own example. i have frequently used the word "equality" in an absolute sense—nay, i have personified equality in several places; thus i have said that equality does such and such things, or refrains from doing others. it may be affirmed that the writers of the age of louis xiv would not have used these expressions: they would never have thought of using the word "equality" without applying it to some particular object; and they would rather have renounced the term altogether than have consented to make a living personage of it.

these abstract terms which abound in democratic languages, and which are used on every occasion without attaching them to any particular fact, enlarge and obscure the thoughts they are intended to convey; they render the mode of speech more succinct, and the idea contained in it less clear. but with regard to language, democratic nations prefer obscurity to labor. i know not indeed whether this loose style has not some secret charm for those who speak and write amongst these nations. as the men who live there are frequently left to the efforts of their individual powers of mind, they are almost always a prey to doubt; and as their situation in life is forever changing, they are never held fast to any of their opinions by the certain tenure of their fortunes. men living in democratic countries are, then, apt to entertain unsettled ideas, and they require loose expressions to convey them. as they never know whether the idea they express to-day will be appropriate to the new position they may occupy to-morrow, they naturally acquire a liking for abstract terms. an abstract term is like a box with a false bottom: you may put in it what ideas you please, and take them out again without being observed.

amongst all nations, generic and abstract terms form the basis of language. i do not, therefore, affect to expel these terms from democratic languages; i simply remark that men have an especial tendency, in the ages of democracy, to multiply words of this kind—to take them always by themselves in their most abstract acceptation, and to use them on all occasions, even when the nature of the discourse does not require them.