it is difficult to say for what reason the americans can trade at a lower rate than other nations; and one is at first led to attribute this circumstance to the physical or natural advantages which are within their reach; but this supposition is erroneous. the american vessels cost almost as much to build as our own; *j they are not better built, and they generally last for a shorter time. the pay of the american sailor is more considerable than the pay on board european ships; which is proved by the great number of europeans who are to be met with in the merchant vessels of the united states. but i am of opinion that the true cause of their superiority must not be sought for in physical advantages, but that it is wholly attributable to their moral and intellectual qualities.

j

[ materials are, generally speaking, less expensive in america than in europe, but the price of labor is much higher.]

the following comparison will illustrate my meaning. during the campaigns of the revolution the french introduced a new system of tactics into the art of war, which perplexed the oldest generals, and very nearly destroyed the most ancient monarchies in europe. they undertook (what had never before been attempted) to make shift without a number of things which had always been held to be indispensable in warfare; they required novel exertions on the part of their troops which no civilized nations had ever thought of; they achieved great actions in an incredibly short space of time; and they risked human life without hesitation to obtain the object in view. the french had less money and fewer men than their enemies; their resources were infinitely inferior; nevertheless they were constantly victorious, until their adversaries chose to imitate their example.

the americans have introduced a similar system into their commercial speculations; and they do for cheapness what the french did for conquest. the european sailor navigates with prudence; he only sets sail when the weather is favorable; if an unforseen accident befalls him, he puts into port; at night he furls a portion of his canvas; and when the whitening billows intimate the vicinity of land, he checks his way, and takes an observation of the sun. but the american neglects these precautions and braves these dangers. he weighs anchor in the midst of tempestuous gales; by night and by day he spreads his sheets to the wind; he repairs as he goes along such damage as his vessel may have sustained from the storm; and when he at last approaches the term of his voyage, he darts onward to the shore as if he already descried a port. the americans are often shipwrecked, but no trader crosses the seas so rapidly. and as they perform the same distance in a shorter time, they can perform it at a cheaper rate.

the european touches several times at different ports in the course of a long voyage; he loses a good deal of precious time in making the harbor, or in waiting for a favorable wind to leave it; and he pays daily dues to be allowed to remain there. the american starts from boston to go to purchase tea in china; he arrives at canton, stays there a few days, and then returns. in less than two years he has sailed as far as the entire circumference of the globe, and he has seen land but once. it is true that during a voyage of eight or ten months he has drunk brackish water and lived upon salt meat; that he has been in a continual contest with the sea, with disease, and with a tedious existence; but upon his return he can sell a pound of his tea for a half-penny less than the english merchant, and his purpose is accomplished.

i cannot better explain my meaning than by saying that the americans affect a sort of heroism in their manner of trading. but the european merchant will always find it very difficult to imitate his american competitor, who, in adopting the system which i have just described, follows not only a calculation of his gain, but an impulse of his nature.

the inhabitants of the united states are subject to all the wants and all the desires which result from an advanced stage of civilization; but as they are not surrounded by a community admirably adapted, like that of europe, to satisfy their wants, they are often obliged to procure for themselves the various articles which education and habit have rendered necessaries. in america it sometimes happens that the same individual tills his field, builds his dwelling, contrives his tools, makes his shoes, and weaves the coarse stuff of which his dress is composed. this circumstance is prejudicial to the excellence of the work; but it powerfully contributes to awaken the intelligence of the workman. nothing tends to materialize man, and to deprive his work of the faintest trace of mind, more than extreme division of labor. in a country like america, where men devoted to special occupations are rare, a long apprenticeship cannot be required from anyone who embraces a profession. the americans, therefore, change their means of gaining a livelihood very readily; and they suit their occupations to the exigencies of the moment, in the manner most profitable to themselves. men are to be met with who have successively been barristers, farmers, merchants, ministers of the gospel, and physicians. if the american be less perfect in each craft than the european, at least there is scarcely any trade with which he is utterly unacquainted. his capacity is more general, and the circle of his intelligence is enlarged.

the inhabitants of the united states are never fettered by the axioms of their profession; they escape from all the prejudices of their present station; they are not more attached to one line of operation than to another; they are not more prone to employ an old method than a new one; they have no rooted habits, and they easily shake off the influence which the habits of other nations might exercise upon their minds from a conviction that their country is unlike any other, and that its situation is without a precedent in the world. america is a land of wonders, in which everything is in constant motion, and every movement seems an improvement. the idea of novelty is there indissolubly connected with the idea of amelioration. no natural boundary seems to be set to the efforts of man; and what is not yet done is only what he has not yet attempted to do.

this perpetual change which goes on in the united states, these frequent vicissitudes of fortune, accompanied by such unforeseen fluctuations in private and in public wealth, serve to keep the minds of the citizens in a perpetual state of feverish agitation, which admirably invigorates their exertions, and keeps them in a state of excitement above the ordinary level of mankind. the whole life of an american is passed like a game of chance, a revolutionary crisis, or a battle. as the same causes are continually in operation throughout the country, they ultimately impart an irresistible impulse to the national character. the american, taken as a chance specimen of his countrymen, must then be a man of singular warmth in his desires, enterprising, fond of adventure, and, above all, of innovation. the same bent is manifest in all that he does; he introduces it into his political laws, his religious doctrines, his theories of social economy, and his domestic occupations; he bears it with him in the depths of the backwoods, as well as in the business of the city. it is this same passion, applied to maritime commerce, which makes him the cheapest and the quickest trader in the world.

as long as the sailors of the united states retain these inspiriting advantages, and the practical superiority which they derive from them, they will not only continue to supply the wants of the producers and consumers of their own country, but they will tend more and more to become, like the english, the factors of all other peoples. *k this prediction has already begun to be realized; we perceive that the american traders are introducing themselves as intermediate agents in the commerce of several european nations; *l and america will offer a still wider field to their enterprise.

k

[ it must not be supposed that english vessels are exclusively employed in transporting foreign produce into england, or british produce to foreign countries; at the present day the merchant shipping of england may be regarded in the light of a vast system of public conveyances, ready to serve all the producers of the world, and to open communications between all peoples. the maritime genius of the americans prompts them to enter into competition with the english.]

l

[ part of the commerce of the mediterranean is already carried on by american vessels.]

the great colonies which were founded in south america by the spaniards and the portuguese have since become empires. civil war and oppression now lay waste those extensive regions. population does not increase, and the thinly scattered inhabitants are too much absorbed in the cares of self-defense even to attempt any amelioration of their condition. such, however, will not always be the case. europe has succeeded by her own efforts in piercing the gloom of the middle ages; south america has the same christian laws and christian manners as we have; she contains all the germs of civilization which have grown amidst the nations of europe or their offsets, added to the advantages to be derived from our example: why then should she always remain uncivilized? it is clear that the question is simply one of time; at some future period, which may be more or less remote, the inhabitants of south america will constitute flourishing and enlightened nations.

but when the spaniards and portuguese of south america begin to feel the wants common to all civilized nations, they will still be unable to satisfy those wants for themselves; as the youngest children of civilization, they must perforce admit the superiority of their elder brethren. they will be agriculturists long before they succeed in manufactures or commerce, and they will require the mediation of strangers to exchange their produce beyond seas for those articles for which a demand will begin to be felt.

it is unquestionable that the americans of the north will one day supply the wants of the americans of the south. nature has placed them in contiguity, and has furnished the former with every means of knowing and appreciating those demands, of establishing a permanent connection with those states, and of gradually filling their markets. the merchants of the united states could only forfeit these natural advantages if he were very inferior to the merchant of europe; to whom he is, on the contrary, superior in several respects. the americans of the united states already exercise a very considerable moral influence upon all the peoples of the new world. they are the source of intelligence, and all the nations which inhabit the same continent are already accustomed to consider them as the most enlightened, the most powerful, and the most wealthy members of the great american family. all eyes are therefore turned towards the union; and the states of which that body is composed are the models which the other communities try to imitate to the best of their power; it is from the united states that they borrow their political principles and their laws.

the americans of the united states stand in precisely the same position with regard to the peoples of south america as their fathers, the english, occupy with regard to the italians, the spaniards, the portuguese, and all those nations of europe which receive their articles of daily consumption from england, because they are less advanced in civilization and trade. england is at this time the natural emporium of almost all the nations which are within its reach; the american union will perform the same part in the other hemisphere; and every community which is founded, or which prospers in the new world, is founded and prospers to the advantage of the anglo-americans.

if the union were to be dissolved, the commerce of the states which now compose it would undoubtedly be checked for a time; but this consequence would be less perceptible than is generally supposed. it is evident that, whatever may happen, the commercial states will remain united. they are all contiguous to each other; they have identically the same opinions, interests, and manners; and they are alone competent to form a very great maritime power. even if the south of the union were to become independent of the north, it would still require the services of those states. i have already observed that the south is not a commercial country, and nothing intimates that it is likely to become so. the americans of the south of the united states will therefore be obliged, for a long time to come, to have recourse to strangers to export their produce, and to supply them with the commodities which are requisite to satisfy their wants. but the northern states are undoubtedly able to act as their intermediate agents cheaper than any other merchants. they will therefore retain that employment, for cheapness is the sovereign law of commerce. national claims and national prejudices cannot resist the influence of cheapness. nothing can be more virulent than the hatred which exists between the americans of the united states and the english. but notwithstanding these inimical feelings, the americans derive the greater part of their manufactured commodities from england, because england supplies them at a cheaper rate than any other nation. thus the increasing prosperity of america turns, notwithstanding the grudges of the americans, to the advantage of british manufactures.

reason shows and experience proves that no commercial prosperity can be durable if it cannot be united, in case of need, to naval force. this truth is as well understood in the united states as it can be anywhere else: the americans are already able to make their flag respected; in a few years they will be able to make it feared. i am convinced that the dismemberment of the union would not have the effect of diminishing the naval power of the americans, but that it would powerfully contribute to increase it. at the present time the commercial states are connected with others which have not the same interests, and which frequently yield an unwilling consent to the increase of a maritime power by which they are only indirectly benefited. if, on the contrary, the commercial states of the union formed one independent nation, commerce would become the foremost of their national interests; they would consequently be willing to make very great sacrifices to protect their shipping, and nothing would prevent them from pursuing their designs upon this point.

nations, as well as men, almost always betray the most prominent features of their future destiny in their earliest years. when i contemplate the ardor with which the anglo-americans prosecute commercial enterprise, the advantages which befriend them, and the success of their undertakings, i cannot refrain from believing that they will one day become the first maritime power of the globe. they are born to rule the seas, as the romans were to conquer the world.