dishonesty the best policy—pedrarias stigmatized—his authority curtailed—quevedo in spain—he encounters las casas—the battle of the priests—oviedo enters the arena—business in darien—the interoceanic road again—its termini—pedrarias and espinosa at panamá—the licentiate makes another raid—the friars of st jerome have their eye on pedrarias—the cabildo of antigua shakes its finger at him—continued attempts to depopulate the north coast—albites builds nombre de dios—lucky licentiate—arrival and death of lope de sosa—oviedo returns and does battle with the dragon—and is beaten from the field.
for the villainous adjudging of vasco nu?ez, gaspar de espinosa received his place on the south sea. and when true tidings reached pedrarias of the appointment of lope de sosa as his successor, the grizzly old governor did exactly that for which he pretended to have beheaded vasco nu?ez. striking corollaries from the historical propositions of the preceding chapter.
the conduct of pedrarias condemned.
that pedrarias was not at once deposed may seem strange to us. he was deposed, however; but slipping south he sought new fields, as we shall presently see; and by the intercession of powerful friends at court he managed to retain rulership for a term of years. then, too, the changes. it was troublesome and expensive for royalty to establish subordinate governments in the indies; and as nearly all of spain's new world governors, and, indeed, officials and subjects, were wrong in some particular, there 461 was not always encouragement to make a change. yet spain and all christendom were indignant over the infamous doings at acla. the friars of st jerome instantly clipped the wings of the cormorant, by ordering him in the kings name "to resolve upon nothing by himself, but to follow the advice of the cabildo[xiii-1] of darien; and, moreover, to send to espa?ola all the gold taken from cacique paris." this was of little practical avail, however. royalty might issue edicts; but those appointed to enforce them seemed to turn to corruption on entering the atmosphere of the indies.
some said, if the good bishop had been there, vasco nu?ez had not died. but according to micer codro it was scarcely among the possibilities for the inauspicious friend of balboa to have been present at the right moment. associated with the alcalde mayor and the governor in magisterial authority, the bishop could without doubt have diverted the quarrel from such gory channels; for there was always enough of the temporal in his spiritual polities to give his influence weight in balancing power. it was a wolfish flock. the bishop complained of it to the king; and on the other hand the royal officers complained of the bishop. both were right. it was impossible too severely to censure such acts as were constantly perpetrated by the officials of castilla del oro, and although quevedo had gone to spain on the more pleasing errand of love and reconciliation, he found it convenient occasionally to say a word to the king in his own defense, and not without influence on the imperial ear. once the royal officials wrote the king that the bishop neglected the conversion of the indians, favored vasco nu?ez against the government, and 462 discouraged colonization by speaking ill of the country; and again that the bishop was a source of constant disturbance, and praying that a provisor, talented and upright, be appointed to superintend sacred affairs.[xiii-2]
before the sovereign, quevedo spoke disparagingly of both pedrarias and vasco nu?ez; the prelate alone was perfect. but beside the genuine ring of las casas, the base metal of quevedo's composition sounded flat. the protector-general was at this time busy at once with his colonization scheme and his impeachment of the jeronimite fathers, who, although meaning well, were slack in exacting the right as measured by apostolic zeal.
on one occasion, in the royal antechamber at molin del rey, while waiting for the bishop of badajoz, one of the king's preachers, with whom he had an engagement to dine, quevedo was bluntly accosted by las casas. "i understand, my lord, that you are the bishop of darien. i too am interested in the indies, and it is my duty to offer you fellowship." "ah! se?or casas," rudely replied quevedo. "and from what text will you preach us a sermon to-day?" "i have ready two sermons," retorted the always armed protector, "which, if you would listen to them, might prove to you of higher import than all the moneys which you bring from the indies." "you are beside yourself! you are beside yourself!" was all the bishop could stammer as his host appeared and withdrew him from the merciless shots of las casas. but quevedo was not to escape so easily. presenting himself after dinner at the house of the king's preacher, las casas tortured his enemy into yet hotter dispute. young charles hearing of it ordered the battle of the priests to be continued before him. this was the first audience by the prince in matters relative to the indies. 463 brought into the royal presence quevedo thanked god for the honor, pronounced the first governor of darien a bad one, the second much worse, and the savages in a deplorable condition. las casas following charged the fault as much to royal officers and clergy as to hidalgos and lesser subjects.
soon after this discussion quevedo presented two memorials, one against pedrarias dávila, and the other for restricting the power of governors in general, and of the military, and for the better protection of the natives. he pledged himself to name a ruler for castilla del oro, meaning diego velazquez, then governor of cuba, who would expend from his own private means fifteen thousand ducats in the service of the colony. within a few days thereafter quevedo was seized with an illness which terminated in his death; charles was summoned to accept the imperial crown, and for a time little attention was paid to the affairs of the indies.[xiii-3]
quevedo and oviedo in spain.
another political agency appeared in spain about this time. gonzalo fernandez de oviedo y valdés, first chronicler of the new world, who, as we have seen, came with pedrarias to tierra firme as superintendent of gold-melting and acting notary-general, becoming disgusted with both the governor and the bishop departed from that shore in october, 1515. scarcely had oviedo arrived at madrid when he received word of king ferdinand's death, which was a severe blow, as he had hoped through the influence of his former patrons to reorganize the government of castilla del oro and place it on a better basis. proceeding to flanders he laid the matter before the ministers, and was referred to cardinal jimenez, who listened and did nothing. there the matter rested until the death of the cardinal, when oviedo again 464 appeared at court and succeeded in obtaining the appointment of lope de sosa to succeed pedrarias in the government of castilla del oro. satisfied thus far in his attempts to benefit the colonists at antigua, he solicited for himself the government of santa marta. the appointment was conferred; but being refused one hundred knights of santiago, who were deemed indispensable to the subjugation of the country, he declined the office. like quevedo, he aroused the enmity of las casas, through his opposition to the schemes of the fiery philanthropist in the management of the natives. nevertheless oviedo obtained many beneficial decrees for darien. the duties of the governor were defined anew; royal officials were forbidden to trade; the royal assayer was required to give bonds; orders were issued regulating the gold-melting house; duties were abolished for four years; the export duty on gold was reduced nearly one half for a term of five years.
a business paralysis succeeded the dark days at acla. little was done in 1518 in the way of new adventure, though pedrarias had enough to occupy himself withal, in keeping his own head on his shoulders. more than one lofty scheme was cut short by the stroke that laid lifeless vasco nu?ez. the young and hardy scarcely dared achieve prominence; the old and imbecile could not; even the ferocious genius of francisco pizarro lay dormant all through his fiery youth, and past early impatient manhood, unknown even to himself.
made captain-general of the south sea, not long after the catastrophe at acla, espinosa was unable at once to take command in person of the force at isla rica. though the licentiate was of a mild, obedient disposition, it was not without misgivings that pedrarias permitted him to assume so important a trust, the most dangerous for purposes of revolt of any within the government of castilla del oro; for instruments 465 employed in the accomplishment of base purposes are not apt to inspire the greatest confidence. but espinosa was not a mere rover; he was an anchored judge already high in colonial office, whose robberies and murders, however unjust and lawless, were of a quasi judicial nature; moreover he was popular with the soldiers, for his legal decisions by no means interfered with popular rights in pillage and licentiousness. indeed, when pedrarias afterward contemplated absence, the people of antigua begged that espinosa might be left there to govern them, but this excited the jealousy of the governor, who refused the petition.[xiii-4]
the much talked of interoceanic chain of posts, with a commercial city at either end, was not yet an accomplished fact. as the breadth, coast-trends, and configuration of the country became better known, acla was found situated too far to the eastward. the narrowest part of the isthmus had been ascertained, as also the most practicable route for a road, requiring a north-coast seaport somewhere opposite panamá, which had long since been decided upon as the best site for a city on the southern seaboard. hernan ponce de leon, temporarily stationed there, had abandoned the place, so that both termini of the proposed road must be founded anew. the point selected on the north coast was nombre de dios.
south sea attractions.
before espinosa was ready for his south sea command, positive information of the appointment of lope de sosa reached antigua. it now behooved both pedrarias and the licentiate to look to their footing, for it was not unlikely to fare hard with them in their coming residencias. it might be as well, after all, for these astute and subtle minds to fall back upon the idea of vasco nu?ez—indeed, the cavalier's ideas seemed better than any of their own—of withdrawing beyond the possibly too restraining influences 466 of superior authority, and establishing themselves in freer latitudes. the north coast offered no further attractions in any event. give them the south sea, and sosa might have the north, and die there at his convenience. for it was assuredly the abode of death.
pedrarias accordingly determined to make the southern seaboard his future base of operations, and to convey thither as much as possible of what he esteemed valuable. to this end he embarked from acla, and laid before the council at antigua a proposal to abandon that site, and remove the capital to panamá. the plan was not regarded with favor, as he neither expected nor desired it to be; for, if panamá was made the capital, sosa's government would be there, and might seriously interfere with his projects. two advantages were, however, gained by making the proposal. by opening the question it unsettled the minds of residents at antigua, and enabled pedrarias with less difficulty to enlist recruits, and it could not afterward be said that he had sought to abandon the government, having offered to carry it with him. nevertheless, he could not part with the people and their council without a fling at them; so, one night he summoned the cabildo to appear at his house, and took from them their insignia of office, leaving the municipality to manage as best it might during his absence. returning to acla, he ordered espinosa to summon the forces stationed in the province of pocorosa, and unite with them all the available troops of the colony. with these, and such provisions and articles of trade and use as they could lay their hands upon, the governor and the alcalde mayor set out across the cordillera for the southern sea.
founding of panamá.
pedrarias was not altogether satisfied with the site of his proposed pacific city. on either side of the old fish-drying station thick tangled woods rose from marshy bottoms; so that, while the spot called 467 panamá was obviously malarious, there seemed at hand no better one.[xiii-5] at the pearl islands affairs were found as vasco nu?ez had left them. compa?on had proved faithful to his trust. more acts of possession were now inflicted on this thrice-gulped wilderness, one on the mainland, january 27, 1519, and one two days after, on the isla rica of vasco nu?ez, called by pedrarias as morales had christened it, isla de las flores.[xiii-6] taking the ships balboa had built, the governor and espinosa embarked the forces, and proceeded to the island of taboga,[xiii-7] where badajoz had been three years before, opposite and some five leagues distant from the proposed settlement.
pedrarias and espinosa had now at their command about four hundred men, most of whom were opposed to city-building as detrimental to the nobler profession of plundering. but calming their fears in this regard, pedrarias sought to secure their interest in his scheme by partitioning the lands adjacent to panamá, and giving to each man a section. foraging expeditions were sent out at once, and the soldiers were encouraged to make captures, and so secure laborers for their lands and means for the indulgence of their lusts. thus every settler soon had from forty to ninety slaves, who did not live long, however. nor were the colonists at antigua forgotten in this division, to the end that by offering superior inducements here, the northern coast might the sooner be depopulated. 468
the formal act of founding the city of panamá was consummated august 15, 1519; the public notary certifying that pedrarias dávila founded then and there a city, the name whereof was panamá, and that in the name of god, and of the queen, do?a juana, and of don cárlos, her son, he would defend the same against all opposers.[xiii-8]
not the least important or successful among the foraging expeditions at this time sent out from panamá was one under espinosa, who with a hundred and fifty men embarked in one of the brigantines in search of the gold that badajoz had lost. ah! that gold; the spaniards could scarcely sleep for thinking of it. but now the licentiate should judicially recover it; then might panamá have rest.
dropping westward a few leagues, espinosa anchored at the mouth of a small river flowing through the province of cutara, called after the son of the late paris who now ruled that province. ascending the river in canoes the spaniards surprised by night the village, and no opposition being offered, the robbers took such plate, provisions, cotton cloth, and indian weapons as they could lay their hands on. it then occurred to the more ghoulish of the company to search the death-chamber of the cacique paris, whose body was then lying in state. and there, to their unutterable joy and thankfulness, round the corpse were not only the golden plates before captured, but piles of vessels and ornaments of the same blessed 469 metal. by this desecration, gold to the value of forty thousand castellanos was secured, which made glad the heart of the old governor at panamá. and who shall say the learned licentiate was not an humane and pious man, a just judge and good christian withal, when after taking the trouble to drive the inhabitants of that village captives to the sea, he liberated them all at the entreaty of the youthful cacique, who had followed them wildly wailing, and faithfully promising a ransom of as much more gold as had been already taken? on the way back the licentiate stopped at the landing of the cacique biruquete, of whom he bought a cargo of maize, without paying for it. lest the treasure should fall into improper hands, half of it was buried at panamá by pedrarias and espinosa; with the remainder the worthy couple set out immediately for antigua, where the latter paid over the king's share, and then made preparations for a voyage of discovery along the coast, toward the north-west.
the stubborn cabildo.
it occurred to pedrarias that while espinosa was absent from darien with the men and ships making discoveries, it would be well for him to visit spain and place his declining power on a firmer basis. but in order to leave he must have permission from the chief authority, or else lay down his office and submit to a residencia. since the jeronimite fathers had made the cabildo of antigua their agent to watch pedrarias, and if possible keep him within the bounds of humanity and decency, he applied to it for permission to leave the country, and was refused. it was very hard, he said, that the king's governor should be thus subject to check by a vulgar town council; but the friars at santo domingo must be obeyed.
since he could not go to spain pedrarias wrote the royal authorities there, setting forth what he had done at panamá, soliciting a south sea government for himself, and the removal of the municipality and cathedral of antigua to the new city. again, midst 470 much storming, he applied for leave, saying he had been chosen procurador in castile; and again he was refused permission. then he dissembled, spoke softly, and said he loved the councilmen as his children, but nothing availed.
an act of this council, passed during his absence, greatly exasperated him, as tending to show a disregard for his authority. this was the granting of a request by diego de albites to plant a colony on the coast of veragua. fearing that the friars might impose upon him further restrictions he abruptly broke off all conference with the council of antigua, and proceeded to panamá.
there he found the soldiers and colonists more than ever dissatisfied. provisions were scarce, and there was fever among them, and they said, espinosa among the rest, if they were to become citizens, they would prefer the pure air of spain to this pest-hole. "very well," replied the governor, "let the gold be unearthed, and that with all the rest returned to the people of paris, as the jeronimite fathers have ordered, and let us return to castile. i assuredly can live there without hunger." a threat from pedrarias to do a righteous act was uncommon and terrifying. the disaffected were silenced; and while pedrarias yielded so far as to agree to the search for a more favorable country to the westward, it was at the same time determined that the building of panamá should be proceeded with.
the doings of albites.
meanwhile the cabildo of antigua proceeded as best it could with the establishing of a northern seaport. by several successful raids on the north coast, toward veragua, diego de albites had accumulated wealth, and with wealth ambition more vaulting. during the war between vasco nu?ez and pedrarias he pictured to himself political dissolution, and sent to spain andres ni?o, a pilot, and two thousand castellanos to purchase for him a south sea government. better skilled in navigation than in diplomacy ni?o returned 471 without the office and without the money. at another time, while left in command at acla during vasco nu?ez' absence at the south sea, albites slipped cable and sailed for espa?ola, where he applied for authority to build a town at nombre de dios or establish a colony on the coast of veragua. referred by the friars to pedrarias, as an excuse for his absence he enlisted sixty men, loaded his ships with much-needed provisions, and returned to receive the thanks of the governor whom he had sought to circumvent. for this faithful service he received permission from pedrarias to make an incursion into the province of veragua, which greatly offended vasco nu?ez; and when albites returned successful from this raid the cabildo at antigua granted him permission to establish a settlement not only in that province, but at nombre de dios, to pedrarias' extreme annoyance.[xiii-9]
it was in 1517 that albites returned to antigua from veragua, chagre, and nombre de dios with much gold and many slaves. according to herrera he attempted an expedition to veragua in 1518, but was driven back to nombre de dios, where he founded a city. andagoya is correct, however, when he places the settlement of nombre de dios in the latter part of 1519, though it was not by order of pedrarias as he affirms. embarking from antigua in a brigantine and caravel, albites touched at the isle of bastimentos, and coasted westward a few leagues, raiding upon the natives for gold with meagre results. one of the ships becoming leaky he returned to bastimentos, where it foundered. thence he was conveyed by the cacique in canoes to nombre de dios, and at once set about building a town.
two opposite posts being thus established, a road 472 was constructed from sea to sea, "through the mountains overgrown with thick woods never touched from all eternity," as peter martyr expresses it. at great labor and cost both to the crown and to the colonists, a way wide enough for vehicles was cut through the thickets; trees were felled and thrown into the marshes, obstructing rocks torn from their beds, and bridges made where necessary.[xiii-10] thus was opened through primeval shades a passage for the blessings and the curses of that atlantic civilization which was to illuminate the pacific.
this same year the lucky licentiate and alcalde mayor, gaspar de espinosa, was gaining further renown as discoverer and treasure-seeker. with juan de casta?eda as pilot, he coasted one hundred and eighty leagues toward the north-west, touching at huistá, natá, chirú, chame, and other posts, and returned to panamá well laden with maize and other provisions, and gold to the value of thirty-three thousand castellanos. during this exploration he entered a gulf to which he gave the name culebras,[xiii-11] from the many snakes of various colors seen there.
inopportune death of sosa.
a stroke of better fortune than he deserved likewise befell pedrarias not long after. in may, 1520, lope de sosa, with three hundred men, arrived and anchored in the harbor of antigua. pedrarias, who was there at the time, immediately made preparations to receive him with becoming ceremony. having given orders concerning his disembarkation, the new governor entered his cabin to dress. while there he was seized with a sudden illness, from which he shortly 473 after expired. with mournful pomp and outward demonstration of grief pedrarias conveyed the body to the church and buried it before the altar. juan alonso de sosa, the son, and all the followers of the late governor were treated with that show of distinction which the old courtier could so well assume. juan rodriguez de alarconcillo, who came as alcalde mayor, and before whom the residencia of the outgoing governor would have been taken, was favored with marked consideration. by way of prudence, some time before the anticipated arrival of his judge pedrarias had sent his wife to spain with all his gold and pearls.
sosa's appointment to supersede pedrarias was one of the reformatory measures which the chronicler oviedo claims to have effected while in spain.[xiii-12] for himself he had obtained, besides the offices of veedor and escribano-general, those of collector of chamber penalties and regidor perpetuo of antigua. orders were issued, furthermore, to all new world governors to furnish him a truthful report of all their acts, so that he might complete the general history of the indies already begun. he was also appointed receiver of the property of vasco nu?ez and his accomplices which had been confiscated to the king. he arrived at antigua with his wife and two children soon after sosa.
but the heart of the scholar was not in the coarse cunning of darien politics; he became discontented, irritable, and while commanding the respect of the colonists he was not popular with them. they did not want reform so much as plunder. pedrarias was his enemy, as he was the enemy of every well-meaning 474 man of ability. the deaths first of a boy and then of his wife did not tend to sweeten his disposition. "many times would i have returned to spain," he exclaims, "had not need and shame prevented me."
the powers of the governor having been enlarged by means of the veedor, oviedo's was the first head on which they were visited. the principal quarrel was over the depopulation of the northern coast. the veedor protested in the king's name, but the governor, now lord of all, was determined to execute his cherished project while he possessed the power. there was no longer any need of a north-coast capital; pedrarias would make panamá his metropolis. before introducing further changes, however, it was necessary that his residencia should be taken. but this, with his experience, need be nothing more than an arraignment and trial of himself. at his request the licentiate alarconcillo published the residencia for thirty days, during which time the governor continued to exercise the functions of office; no one appeared against him, and a certificate of the proceeding was sent to spain. pedrarias then took up his permanent abode at panamá.
not long afterward the veedor and contador were obliged to visit panamá to weigh some gold and receive the royal share, since the governor would no longer send the metal to antigua. the contador took up his residence there, but oviedo returned to antigua, more than ever determined to stand by that city. seeing which pedrarias was satisfied he could no more effectually ruin his adversary than by permitting him to have his own way. besides, it were as well to stop the tongue and pen of one who could make and unmake governors. so when next oviedo complained pedrarias answered, "se?or veedor, since you know so well how to achieve such desirable results, accept from me what power i possess, and govern antigua according to your pleasure."
oviedo as ruler.
after some hesitation oviedo accepted the proposal, 475 and presented his credentials to the municipal council in november, 1521. opening his administration with the enthusiasm of a novice, he straightway set about correcting abuses. he forbade blasphemy, keeping mistresses, and selling or eating meat on saturday. he prohibited gambling, and burned all the cards in the public square. a dishonest notary was required to make restitution fourfold and be suspended from office for one year. indian women must no longer be employed as beasts of burden, and indian children must not be sold and bought as slaves. certain more practicable provisions, however, saved antigua, for a time, from the effects of a morality which standing alone would have killed any colony in the indies. the new ruler bought for small sums the houses of those leaving, and sold them to new-comers at cost. he erected a market, opened mines, built ships, and sent out expeditions to smooth the ruffled plumage of the savage. he made of old iron five hundred hatchets, which were sold to the indians; and when they became dulled, their owners not knowing how to sharpen them, he placed on board a vessel three large grindstones, covered so that the uncivilized might not steal the secret, and proceeded along the coast grinding such implements as the indians brought, and charging therefor a sum equal to the original cost, which was cheerfully paid. it is claimed that more than seven thousand castellanos were thus secured during one voyage.
a greater prosperity followed these measures than pleased pedrarias. but by revoking the many decisions of his deputy that came up on appeal from dissatisfied colonists, the governor was enabled to render oviedo's position one of little power.
the staff of officials was increased by yet another alcalde mayor, the licentiate sancho de salaya, for the south sea government particularly, who arrived at antigua in a caravel from spain, the 1st of july, 1522. with him came rodrigo perez, the friend of 476 vasco nu?ez, vicar when sent in chains to spain, but returned arch-deacon.[xiii-13]
about this time a rebellion broke out on the rio grande san juan, caused by outrages perpetrated by the bachiller corral and martin estete during a foraging expedition. heedless of the warning of oviedo, martin de murga, visitador of the indians, in company with three spaniards and ten friendly indians, paid a visit to bea, the cacique of this province, who slew the entire party. juan de escaray with forty men was sent against the revolted chieftain.
soon after some christianized indians came down from the mountains, eight leagues distant, and reported outrages on them by the cacique corobari. thirty-five men were sent to capture him, and when brought in, salaya sentenced him to be burned; after which the licentiate proceeded to panamá. several spies caught near antigua about the same time confessed under torture to an insurrection contemplated by the cacique guaturo, who had joined bea. it was his plan to fire the town and slay the inhabitants. oviedo in person, with forty men, proceeded against the new rebel, who, with several of the conspirators, was captured and hanged. this was the last of the wars of antigua.
oviedo retires.
at length it pleased pedrarias to depose oviedo, and appoint in his place the bachiller corral, who had shortly before incurred the anger of the chronicler, and had by him been sent in chains to spain, on the charge of having there a wife while living himself in the indies. the ubiquitous bachiller re-appeared at antigua, however, almost in a twinkling. of course, the chronicler was very indignant. the revocation was read in council; whereupon oviedo laid his staff of office on the chair which he had occupied as president, and took his seat among the members, saying, "this is my place, given me by the emperor; here 477 will i henceforth serve their majesties, as in duty bound, and here only." accompanying the revocation was a decree from pedrarias, authorizing the city of antigua to elect a representative to a general assembly, to be convened at panamá for the purpose of providing measures important to the province, and to elect procuradores de córtes, or members of congress to send to spain. pedrarias preferred espinosa to represent antigua, for obvious reasons; but instead of sending a delegate to the junta at panamá, the people of antigua chose their own representative in the person of oviedo. while waiting for a vessel oviedo occupied himself by presenting charges against pedrarias before the new alcalde mayor, alarconcillo, who had ordered a second residencia of the governor, and also one of espinosa. for this pastime he not only narrowly escaped paying with his life, at the hand of an assassin, but pedrarias ordered his late lieutenant's own residencia to be taken, and even placed him in irons until bonds should be given. the trial was passed without further damage than a fine of twenty castellanos for sending corral to spain. another attempt being made at murder, oviedo on the 3d of july, 1523, stole away, embarking ostensibly for nombre de dios, but bearing off, he directed his course toward cuba and jamaica, and thence sailed to spain. verily, these were the days of dissimulation.