early experiences—the compact—embarkation at palos—the voyage—discovery of land—unfavorable comparison with the paradise of marco polo—cruise among the islands—one nature everywhere—desertion of pinzon—wreck of the santa maría—the fortress of la navidad erected—return to spain—rights of civilization—the papal bull of partition—fonseca appointed superintendent of the indies—second voyage—navidad in ruins—isabela established—discontent of the colonists—explorations of the interior—coasting cuba, and discovery of jamaica—failure of columbus as governor—intercourse with spain—destruction of the indians—government of the indies—diego and bartolomé colon—charges against the admiral—commission of inquiry appointed—second return to spain—third voyage—trinidad discovered—santo domingo founded—the roldan rebellion—francisco de bobadilla appointed to supersede columbus—arbitrary and iniquitous conduct of bobadilla—columbus sent in chains to spain.

in the developments of progress the agent, however subordinate to the event, cannot fail to command our intelligent curiosity. the fact is less one with us than the factor. the instrument is nearer us in pulsating humanity than the event, which is the result of inexorable causations wholly beyond our knowledge. that america could not have remained much longer hidden from the civilized world does not lessen the vivid interest which attaches to the man columbus, as he plods along the dusty highway toward huelva, leading by the hand his boy, and bearing upon his shoulders the more immediate destinies of nations. 156

nor are we indifferent to the agencies that evolved the agent. every signal success springs from a fortuitous conjunction of talent and opportunity; from a coalition of taste or training with the approaching fancy or dominant idea of the times. while assisting his father wool-combing, the youthful genoese was toughening his sinews and acquiring habits of industry; while studying geometry and latin at pavia, while serving as sailor in the mediterranean, or afterward cruising the high seas, he was knitting more firmly the tissues of his mind, and strengthening his courage for the life-conflict which was to follow. without such discipline, in vain from the north and south and west might progress come whispering him secrets; for inspiration without action is but impalpable breath, leaving no impression, and genius unseasoned by application decomposes to corruption all the more rank by reason of its richness.

his marriage with the daughter of bartolommeo perestrello, a distinguished navigator under prince henry; his map-making as means of support; his residence on the isle of porto santo, and his interest while there in maritime discovery; his conversations and correspondence with navigators and cosmographers in various quarters; his zealous study of the writings of marco polo, benjamin of tudela, and carpini, and his eager absorption of the fantastic tale of antonio leone, of madeira; his ponderings on ocean mysteries, and his struggles with poverty; his audience of john of portugal, and the treachery of that monarch in attempting to anticipate his plans by secretly sending out a vessel, and the deserved defeat which followed; his sending his brother bartolomé with proposals to england; his stealing from lisbon with his son diego, lest he should be arrested for debt; his supposed application to genoa; his interviews with the dukes of medina sidonia and medina celi, and the letter of the latter to queen isabella of castile; his visit to the court at córdova, 157 and the dark days attending it; the conference of learned men at salamanca, and their unfavorable verdict; the weary waitings on the preoccupied sovereigns at málaga and seville; the succor given at la rábida, and the worthy prior's intercession with the queen; the humble dignity of the mariner at granada amidst scenes of oriental splendor and general rejoicings, which only intensified his discontent; the lofty constancy in his demands when once a royal hearing was obtained; the fresh disappointment after such long delay, and the proud bitterness of spirit with which he turned his back on spain to seek in france a patron for his schemes; the final appeal of santángel, who afterward assisted in obtaining the money, and the conversion of isabella, who now offered, if necessary, to pledge her jewels to meet the charges of the voyage; the despatching of a royal courier after the determined fugitive, who returned in joy to receive the tardy aid—these incidents in the career of columbus are a household story.

and therein, thus far, we see displayed great persistency of purpose by one possessed of a conception so stupendous as to overwhelm well-nigh the strongest; by one not over-careful in money-matters, or morality; proud and sensitive whenever the pet project is touched, but affable enough otherwise, and not above begging upon necessity. it was a long time to wait, eighteen years, when every day was one of alternate hope and despair; and they were not altogether worthless, those noiseless voices from another world, which kept alive in him the inspiration that oft-times now appeared as the broken tracery of a half-remembered dream.

terms of agreement.

an agreement was made by the sovereigns and the mariner, that to columbus, his heirs and successors forever, should be secured the office of admiral, and the titles of viceroy and governor-general of all the lands and seas he should discover, with power to nominate candidates from whom the sovereigns 158 might choose rulers for the realms discovered; that one tenth of the net returns of gold, pearls, or other commodities brought therefrom should be his; that in disputes arising from the new traffic he, or his lieutenant, should be sole arbitrator within his domain, the high admiral of castile being judge within his district; and that by contributing one eighth of the cost of any enterprise to the regions found by him he should receive one eighth the profits. to these dignities and prerogatives was added the right of the discoverer, and of his heirs, to prefix to their names the title 'don,' which should elevate them into respectability beside the grandees of spain. this agreement was signed by ferdinand as well as by isabella, although the crown of castile alone assumed the risk, and alone was to receive the benefit.

it was not a common spectacle in those days along the southern seaboard of spain, that of science urging religion into its service. nevertheless, by royal order, reiterated by pe?alosa in person with pronounced effect, the devil-fearers of palos were forced to provide ships and seamen for what they regarded as anything but an orthodox adventure. this they did with the greatest reluctance.

even under pressure of that civil and ecclesiastical system so completely interwoven in spain that to disobey one was rebellion against both, even in the face of king and priest, these mechanical sea-farers, who halted not before tangible danger in any form, shrank from the awful uncertainty of a plunge into the mysteries of the dim, lowering, unintelligible west. then came bravely forward the brothers pinzon, and not only assisted in providing two ships, so that queen isabella, after all, might wear her jewels while her deputy was scouring the high seas for new dominions, but furnished columbus with money to equip another vessel and to pay his eighth 159 of the charge which should secure him one eighth of the profits—a service never sufficiently remembered or rewarded by either columbus, his masters, or successors.

first voyage.

the expedition comprised one hundred and twenty men, in three small vessels, the santa maría, decked, and carrying the flag of the admiral, and the pinta and ni?a, open caravels, commanded by martin alonso pinzon and vicente ya?ez pinzon respectively. among others were the inspector-general of the armament, rodrigo sanchez; the chief alguacil, diego de arana; the royal notary, rodrigo de escobar; and four pilots, francisco martin pinzon, sancho ruiz, pedro alonso ni?o, and bartolomé roldan. the commander-in-chief with his tall, enduring form bowed by an idea; his long, thin face, with its large, round eyes, high forehead, straight, pointed nose; features, in which tenacity and gloom struggled for the predominance, surrounded by thin locks and gray beard—was scarcely a personage either to inspire confidence or win affection. the squadron sailed from the port of palos august 3, 1492.

but for the fact that it was the first, the voyage was quite commonplace; the most serious occurrences being the breaking of a rudder, which obliged the expedition to put in at the canaries for repairs, and the variation of the needle, which caused a little fright among the pilots. the sea was tranquil, toward the last extremely so, and the wind generally favorable; yet no small trepidation attended this gradual loosening of hold upon the substantial world, and the drifting daily farther and farther into the fathomless unknown. hence it was with the wildest joy that early in the morning of the 12th of october the cry of land! was heard, and that soon afterward the venturesome navigators felt beneath their feet the indubitable isle to which they gave the name san salvador, taking possession for castile. 160

now the sovereigns had promised that he who first saw land should be recompensed by a pension of ten thousand maravedís, equivalent to thirty-six dollars. it was at two o'clock in the morning that rodrigo de triana, a mariner on board the pinta, gave the signal, the first that proved true after several had been mistakenly made; whereupon he claimed the reward. but previously, during the night, columbus had fancied he descried a fitful light that should be on some shore. on the strength of this surmise he secured to himself the insignificant sum, which, to say nothing of its justness, was not a very magnanimous proceeding in so great a discoverer. we are told of triana, that, burning under a sense of wrong, after returning to spain, he passed into africa and turned mahometan. however this may have been, dawn had shown them the island, which seemed itself but dawn, to be dispelled by the full sun's rays when the night's dream had passed. over the trackless waste of sea, suspended between earth and sky, the good ships had felt their way, until now, like goddesses, they sat at anchor on the other side of ocean.

though this land was unlike the zipangu of his dreams, columbus was not disposed to complain; but rather, midst tears and praises, to kiss the earth, be it of whatsoever quality, and smile benignantly upon the naked natives that crept timidly forward, wondering whether the ships were monsters of the deep, or bright beings dropped from heaven.

of a truth, it was a wonderful place, this india of marco polo that the genoese now sought. intersected by rivers and canals, spanned by bridges under which the largest ships might sail, were fertile provinces fragrant with fruit and spices. mangi alone boasted twelve thousand cities with gorgeous palaces, whose pillars and roofs were emblazoned in gold, and so situated as to be compassed within a few days' 161 travel. the cities and fortresses of cathay were counted by tens of thousands, and their busy population by millions. on every side were gardens and luxurious groves; pleasure-boats and banqueting-barges floated on the lakes, and myriads of white sails swept over the bays. the mountains were veined with silver, the river-beds paved with gold, and pearls were as common as pebbles. sheep were as large as oxen, and oxen were as large as elephants. birds of brilliant plumage filled the enchanting air, and strange beasts of beauty and utility roamed the forests. the inhabitants were arrayed in silks and furs, and fed on luscious viands; there were living springs that cured all diseases. the army of the great khan, the happy ruler of all these glories, was in number as the grains of the sand which the sea surrounds; and as for vessels of war, and horses, and elephants, there were a thousand times ten thousand. what a contrast to such a creation was this low-lying strip of jungle-covered sand, peopled by copper-hued creatures dwelling in huts, and sustaining life by the natural products of the unkempt earth! this, however, was but an outlying island of cathay; the main-land of asia could not be far distant; in any event, here was india, and these people were indians.

the two indias compared.

there was little enough, now appearing, in the india thus far found to enrich spain. in their noses the natives displayed gold, always a royal monopoly when discovered; and they brought cotton for barter, on which the admiral immediately laid the same restriction. being informed, by signs, that the metal came from the south, after examining the shore thereabout in boats, the spaniards set sail on the 14th, took possession of santa maría de la concepcion on the 15th, of fernandina, now exuma, the day following, and afterward of isabela, now isla larga, or long island; also of a group to which they gave the name islas de arena. soils and 162 other substances, atmospheres and sunshines, were all familiar; plants and animals, though differing in degree and kind, were similar to those they had always been accustomed to see. one creation was everywhere apparent; one nature; one rule. it was wonderful, stupendous! and if these human kind have souls, what a mighty work is here to fit them for eternity!

crossing the bahama bank, they came on the 28th to cuba, which columbus called juana, and which, with its dense uprolling green spangled with parrots, gay woodpeckers, and humming-birds, scarlet flamingoes and glittering insects; its trees of royal palm, cocoanut, cedar, mahogany, and shrubs of spicy fragrance; its unknown fruits and foods; its transparent waters whose finny denizens flashed back the sunlight from their variegated scales, all under the brightest of skies, all breathed upon by softest airs, and lapped in serenest seas, was more like his own zipangu, if, indeed, it was not mangi itself.

coasting eastward, the pinta sailed away and left the other vessels, and it was with deep chagrin that columbus saw no attention paid his signals to return. pinzon had heard of gold-fields in advance of him, and he was going to reap them. the wreck of the santa maría a month afterward, leaving the admiral only the little ni?a, made his situation all the more critical, and made him feel more keenly than ever the desertion. nor was this the first indication of mutiny and disruption among his people during the voyage. if the truth must be told, the character of the man, though inured to the cruel hardihood of the age, seems here to be undergoing change; else it was not originally as either he or his friends have estimated. the new and varied experiences amidst the new and varied phenomena attending the idea and its consummation make it a matter of no wonder that his head began to be a little turned. he had pondered painfully on what aristotle taught regarding 163 the sphericity of the earth, on what seneca said about sailing to the indies westwardly, and on the terrestrial paradise placed by dante at the antipodes of the holy city; and now he was here among those happy regions of which so long ago philosophers had spoken and poets sung. under the inspiration of rare intelligence, and by wonderful courage and force of will, this genoese sailor had brought to his own terms the world's proudest sovereigns. success, in his mind the most perfect, the most complete, was by this time proved beyond peradventure. at the outset he had suspected himself the special agent of the supernatural; now he was sure of it. it was meet, therefore, that all men should fear and obey him. impelled to activity, he was impelled, if necessary, to severity. during the passage he had deemed it expedient several times to mislead the sailors, who were consequently backward about reposing in him the respect and confidence due a commander. suspicious of the spanish sovereigns from the first, his fears constantly increased as the magnitude of his discovery slowly unfolded before him, that he should eventually be robbed of it. he was jealous lest any of those who had shared with him the perils of the adventure should secure to themselves some part of the honor or profit attending it. he had quarrelled with the pinzons, who, having staked their money and lives on what was generally regarded a mad risk, thought some consideration from the commander their due. the admiral's temper was tamed somewhat by the very boldness of pinzon's act; for when the pinta returned from her cruisings, little was then said about it; but if ever the opportunity should come, her commander must pay dearly for his disobedience.

sailing among the islands.

cuba failed to display any opulent oriental city, but furnished tobacco and maize, gifts from savagism to civilization as comforting, perhaps, as any received in return. the mariners next discovered 164 and coasted hayti, or espa?ola, thus occupying the greater part of december. on the northern side of the island, out of the wrecked santa maría and her belongings, columbus built and equipped a fortress, which he called la navidad; and leaving there thirty-nine men under command of diego de arana, with pedro gutierrez and rodrigo de escobedo, lieutenants, on the 4th of january, 1493, he embarked for spain. those left behind were expected by the ardent-minded admiral, during his absence, to obtain, in trade, a ton of gold, beside discovering mines and spices.

violent storms attended the homeward voyage; but on the 15th of march the expedition reached palos in safety, after touching at the azores and the coast of portugal. then followed rejoicings. over spain, over europe, the tidings flew: a new world to the westward! bells rang and choirs pealed hosannas. a new world for spain; now were their catholic majesties well paid for their losses and trials in connection with mahometans and jews!

with six natives, and divers birds and plants and other specimens from the islands, columbus set out for barcelona, then the residence of the spanish sovereigns. throughout the journey, the highway and houses were thronged with spectators eager for a glimpse of the strange spectacle. arrived at court, the great mariner was most graciously received, being permitted even to be seated in the presence of royalty. he told his tale. it is said that all present wept. columbus was as much excited as any. in a delirium of joy he vowed within seven years to appoint an army of four thousand horse and fifty thousand foot for the rescue of jerusalem, and to pay the cost out of his own pocket; but, unfortunately, he never found himself in funds sufficient to fulfil his pious promise. the original compact between the sovereigns and the discoverer was confirmed, and to 165 the latter was granted a family coat of arms. while columbus was fêted by the nobles, and all the world resounded with his praises, martin alonso pinzon lay a-dying; the reward for his invaluable services, exceeding a hundred-fold all that isabella and ferdinand together had done, being loss of property, loss of health, the insults of the admiral, the scorn of the queen, all now happily crowned by speedy death.

a happy people.

never had nature made, within historic times, a paradise more perfect than this cuba and this hayti that the genoese had found. never was a sylvan race more gentle, more hospitable than that which peopled this primeval garden. naked, because they needed not clothing; dwelling under palm-leaves, such being sufficient protection; their sustenance the spontaneous gifts of the ever generous land and sea; undisturbed by artificial curbings and corrections, and tormented by no ambitions, their life was a summer day, as blissful as mortals can know. it was as eden; without work they might enjoy all that earth could give. disease and pain they scarcely knew; only death was terrible. in their social intercourse they were sympathizing, loving, and decorous, practising the sublimest religious precepts without knowing it, and obeying christ more perfectly than many who profess to serve him. with strangers the men were frank, cordial, honest; the women artless and compliant. knowing no guile, they suspected none. possessing all things, they gave freely of that which cost them nothing. having no laws, they broke none; circumscribed by no conventional moralities, they were not immoral. if charity be the highest virtue, and purity and peace the greatest good, then were these savages far better and happier beings than any civilization could boast. that they possessed any rights, any natural or inherent privileges in regard to their lands or their lives; that these innocent and inoffensive people were not fit subjects 166 for coercion, treachery, robbery, enslavement, and slaughter, was a matter which seems never to have been questioned at that time by either discoverer, adventurer, or ruler. however invalid in any of the spanish courts might have been the argument of a house-breaker, that in the room he entered he discovered a purse of gold, and took it, spaniards never thought of applying such logic to themselves in regard to the possessions of the natives in the new lands their genoese had found.

what spain required now was a title such as the neighboring nations of europe should recognize as valid. so far as the doctrine was concerned, of appropriating to themselves the possessions of others, they were all equally sound in it. europe with her steel and saltpetre and magnetic needle was stronger than naked barbarians, whose possessions were thereupon seized as fast as found. the right to such robbery has been held sacred since the earliest records of the human race; and it was by this time legalized by the civilized nations. savagism had no rights which civilization was bound to respect. the world belonged not to christian or mahometan, but to whatever idea, principle, or power could take it. in none of their pretended principles, in none of their codes of honor or ethics, was there any other ultimate appeal than brute force; their deity they made to fit the occasion, whatever that might be. this they did not know, however. they thought themselves patterns of justice and fair morality; and all that troubled them was in what attitude they would stand toward each other with regard to their several discoveries and conquests. but while such was the recognized condition of affairs at the beginning of the sixteenth century among the reckless adventurers of spain, such were not the teachings of the church, nor the views of the intelligent and right thinking men of the time. true, the army of fortune-seekers who first rushed to the new world in search of gold came 167 for lust and plunder, but with them, and inspired with very different motives, came the missionaries of the cross, pointing the savages to civilization and a purer religion than their own. but civilization and religion, it must be confessed, had little to recommend them in the examples of unprincipled men who were ever present to give the lie to the teachings of the priests.

the world partitioned by the pope.

thus it was that the spanish sovereigns, being christian, applied for a confirmation of title to alexander vi., then sovereign pontiff of christendom, at the same time insinuating, in a somewhat worldly fashion, that learned men regarded the rights of their catholic majesties secure enough even without such confirmation. no valid objections before the holy tribunal could be raised against christian princes powerful enough to sustain their pretensions to ownership while propagating the true faith in heathen lands; but pope eugene iv. and his successors had already granted portugal all lands discovered by portuguese from cape bojador to the indies. in order, therefore, to avoid conflict, the bull issued the 2d of may, 1493, ceding spain the same rights respecting discoveries already granted portugal, was on the day following defined to this effect:—an imaginary line of demarcation should be drawn from pole to pole, one hundred leagues west of the azores and cape verde islands; all lands discovered east of that line should be portugal's, while west of that line all should belong to spain. thus by a very mortal breath and the flourish of a pen, the unknown world, with all its multitudes of interests and inhabitants, was divided between these two sovereignties, occupying the peninsula of south-western europe; though in their wisdom they forgot that if the world was round, portugal in going east and spain in going west must somewhere meet, and might yet quarrel on the other side. subsequently, that is to say on the 7th of june, 1494, by treaty between spain and portugal the papal line of partition was removed, 168 making it three hundred and seventy leagues west of the cape verde islands, portugal having complained of want of sea-room for southern enterprise. this removal ultimately gave the portuguese brazil. and ecclesiastics claim that care was ever exercised by the spanish crown to comply with the obligations thus laid upon it by this holy sanction.

appointed to take charge of the affairs of the new world was juan rodriguez de fonseca, arch-deacon of seville, and afterward patriarch of the indies. although high in ecclesiastical preferment, he was a bustling man of business, and ably filled the office during a period of some thirty years. of unflinching devotion to his sovereign, sedate, stern in the accomplishment of his duty, and obliged as he was, in the interests of the crown, to exercise occasional restraint on the rashness or presumption of the conquerors, he incurred their enmity and was reviled by their biographers. that he was retained so long in office by such able monarchs as ferdinand and charles goes far to prove invalid the charges of misrule and villainy so liberally made against him. associated with fonseca was francisco pinelo, as treasurer, and juan de soria as contador, or auditor. their chief office was at seville, with a custom-house at cádiz belonging to the same department. this was the germ of the famous casa de contratacion de las indias, or india house of trade, so long dominant in the government of the new world.

the second voyage.

thus all went swimmingly. columbus found no difficulty in fitting out a fleet for a second venture, a royal order being issued that all captains, with their ships and crews, in all the andalusian ports, should hold themselves in readiness for that purpose. seventeen vessels sailed from cádiz the 25th of september, 1493, having on board twelve hundred persons,—miners, mechanics, agriculturists, and gentlemen,—with horses, cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, and fowls; the seeds of vegetables, of orchard fruits, of oranges, lemons, 169 and grain for planting; together with provisions, medicines, implements, goods for trade, arms, ammunition, and all the requirements for founding a colony. among the passengers were diego colon, the admiral's brother, bernal diaz de pisa, contador, fermin cedo, assayer, and alonso de ojeda and juan de la cosa, subsequently famous in new world discoveries; also twelve priests, chief among whom was bernardo buil, a benedictine monk, sent by the pope as his apostolic vicar, with all the ornaments and vestments for full service, which always had a wonderful effect upon the natives. the work of conversion had already been begun by baptizing in solemn state the six savages brought over by columbus, ferdinand and isabella with prince juan standing sponsors. the 3d of november the expedition reached dominica, so named from the day of arrival, sunday. next was discovered an island to which columbus gave the name of his ship, marigalante; then guadalupe, where were tamed geese, and pine-apples, also human bones, significant of the presence of the horror-breeding caribs, or cannibals. thus cruising among these caribbee islands, and naming them one after another, columbus continued his way and finally came to navidad, only to find the fortress in ruins, its former occupants having fallen victims to their own follies.

choosing a site a little to the east of navidad, still on the north side of hayti, the spaniards landed their effects, and laid out a city, which they called isabela, surrounding it with ramparts. as soon as the vessels could be laden with gold, they were to be sent back to spain; but the death of the spaniards left at navidad had somewhat marred original plans.

while columbus lay ill, directing affairs as best he might, early in january, 1494, two parties under ojeda and gorvalan reconnoitred the island, each in a different direction, and returning, reported gold. as it was inconvenient to their anchorage, and as many 170 of the colonists were prostrate with disease, it was deemed best to let the ships go back empty rather than detain them longer; hence, on the 2d of february, twelve of the largest craft put to sea under command of antonio de torres, having on board further specimens of the people and products of the country. by this departure was sent a request for immediate supplies.

murmurs now arose against columbus, the sick and disappointed ones complaining most loudly that he had deceived them, had lured them thither with false hopes to die. and they begged diaz de pisa, already at the head of a faction, and cedo, who said there was not gold in those isles in paying quantities, to seize the remaining ships and sail with them for spain. but the admiral hearing of it, arrested diaz, and held him in irons on board one of the vessels to await trial in spain.

recovered from illness, columbus left his brother diego in command at isabela, and set out, at the head of four hundred men, for the golden mountains of cibao, in the interior of the island, intending there to build a fortress, and to work the mines on an extensive scale. arrived at a favorable locality, where gold seemed plentiful in the brooks, the spaniards threw up a strong wooden fort, which they called santo tomás, a piece of pleasantry aimed at the doubting assayer, cedo. leaving in command pedro margarite, columbus returned to isabela. afterward a smaller post was built, called magdalena, and the command was given to luis de arriaga.

the natives could not welcome so large an invasion, which they now clearly saw would bring upon them serious results. thereupon they withdrew from the vicinity of santo tomás, refusing all intercourse with its inmates; and as a spanish hidalgo could by no means work, even at gold-gathering, success in that direction was not marked. provisions and medicine 171 then began to fail, and fresh discontent arose, even father buil arraying himself in opposition to the admiral.

as much to keep his people occupied as through any expectation of profit, columbus sent another expedition into the interior of hayti, and himself crossed to the south side of cuba in three caravels, intending thence to reach cathay. soon he discovered to the southward a lofty isle, which he called at first santa gloria, then santiago, but which finally retained its native name, jamaica, that is to say, island of springs. after reaching nearly the western end of cuba, thinking it still the continent of asia, and that possibly he might by that way reach spain, in which event he could then see what was beyond, he coasted the south sides of jamaica and hayti, and returned to isabela, where he arrived insensible from excitement and fatigue. when he awoke to bodily suffering, which for a time had been drowned in delirious energy, there, to his great joy, he found his brother bartolomé, who had come from spain with three well-laden ships to his assistance.

colonization a failure.

great events generally choose great men for their accomplishment, though not unfrequently we see no small dust raised by an insignificant agent. as a mariner and discoverer, columbus had no superior; as colonist and governor, he had by this time proved himself a failure. there are some things great men cannot do as well as their inferiors. it was one thing to rule at sea, and quite another to rule on shore. in bringing to his india these unruly spaniards, he had sown for himself the whirlwind. had he been more judicious in the selection of his followers, his later days would have been more successful as well as more peaceful. discovery was his infatuation; he was never for a moment unattended by a consuming curiosity to find a western way to civilized india. had he been possessed of sound practical judgment 172 in the matter, of the same knowledge of himself and of political affairs that he had of navigation, he would have seen that he could not, at the same time, gratify his passion for discovery and successfully govern colonies. in his fatal desire to assume rulership, and upon the ill-understood reports of simple savages, with no knowledge of the resources or capabilities of the country, without definite purpose or mature plans, he had brought upon himself an avalanche of woes. beside his incapacity for such a task, his position was rendered all the more trying by the fact that he was a foreigner, whose arbitrary acts galled his impatient subordinates, and finally wrought them to the pitch of open rebellion. the spaniards were quick enough to perceive that this genoese sailor was in no wise fitted to lay the foundation of a prosperous spanish colony; and when during his absence he left in command his brother, to whom attached no prestige of high achievement to make up for his misfortune in not being born in spain, complications grew daily worse. even the ecclesiastics were against the admiral; for with a foresight born of a deep study of human nature they saw that between the fires of the real and the unreal this man was becoming mad. they saw the religious hypochondria, which had already inflamed his intellect, now aggravated by the anxieties incident to the government of a turbulent element under circumstances unprecedented, undermining his health, and bringing rapidly upon him those mental and physical distempers which rendered the remainder of his life prolonged misery. thus we may plainly see how columbus brought upon himself the series of calamities which are commonly found charged to unscrupulous sovereigns and villainous rivals.

and thickly enough misfortunes were laid upon him on his return to isabela. margarite, who had been ordered to explore the island, leaving ojeda in command at santo tomás, had abandoned himself to 173 licentious idleness, followed by outrages upon the natives, which notwithstanding their pacific disposition had driven them to retaliation.

treatment of the natives.

and here was the beginning of these four centuries of such rank injustice, such horrible atrocities inflicted by the hand of the stronger upon the weaker, of the civilized upon the savage, that should make a man blush to own kinship to a race so defiled before its maker in whose image it was created.

it is the self-same story, old and new, from espa?ola to darien and mexico, from brazil to labrador, and from patagonia to alaska, by sailor and cavalier, spaniard and englishman, by gold-hunter and fur-hunter—the unenlightened red man welcoming with wonder his destroyer, upon whom he is soon forced to turn to save himself, his wife, his children, but only at last to fall by the merciless arm of development beneath the pitiable destiny of man primeval.

throwing off all pretence of allegiance to columbus, when satiated with his excesses, margarite, with a mutinous crew at his heels and accompanied by father buil, had taken such ships as best suited them and had departed for spain. two caciques, or native chieftains, guatiguana, and caonabo the carib, with their followers had arisen in arms, had killed some of the spaniards, had besieged magdalena and santo tomás, and had even cast an ominous eye on isabela. such were the chief occurrences at the settlement during the absence of the admiral.

first of all, columbus made his brother bartolomé adelantado, that is to say, leader of an enterprise, or governor of a frontier province. then he sent relief to the fortress of magdalena, and established another military post near where was subsequently santiago, which he called concepcion. later the chain was continued by building other posts; one near the rio yaquí, called santa catalina, and one on the river yaquí, called esperanza. meanwhile ojeda 174 offered to take the redoubtable carib, caonabo, by stratagem; which was accomplished, while he was surrounded by a multitude of warriors, by first winning the admiration and confidence of the cacique, and then on the plea of personal ornamentation and display obtaining his consent to wear some beautiful bright manacles, and sit bound behind ojeda on his steed; in which plight he was safely brought by the dashing cavalier at the head of his horsemen into isabela.

about this time antonio de torres arrived with four ships from spain, and was sent back with the gold which had been collected, and five hundred indians to be sold as slaves. by this departure went diego colon to refute the charges of incompetency and maladministration now being preferred against his brother at court.

though suffering from a fresh attack of fever, on the 27th of march, 1495, accompanied by the adelantado and all his available forces, columbus set out from isabela to subjugate the caciques of the island, who had combined to extirpate the spaniards. charging the naked red men amidst the noise of drum, trumpet, and halloo, with horse and bloodhound, lance, sabre, and firelock, a peace was soon conquered. multitudes of the inhabitants were butchered, and upon the rest was imposed such cruel tribute that they gradually sank beneath the servitude. but when the white men thus had the domain to themselves, they did not know what to do with it. it was not for them to till the soil, or labor in the mines; hence famine threatened, and they were finally reduced to the last extremity.

there is little wonder, under the circumstances, that orders were issued in spain to depose columbus, first by the appointment of a commission of inquiry, and finally by removal.

government of the indies.

thus far the government of the indies, as the new world began to be called, had been administered 175 solely by the admiral, according to agreement, with fonseca as superintendent in spain. none but they were permitted to freight or despatch any vessel to the new world. columbus was authorized to appoint two subordinate officers subject to royal sanction; and yet the sovereigns took offense when he named bartolomé adelantado, which office was not that of lieutenant-governor, as many writers aver, but nearer that of territorial governor, with political as well as military powers, usually appointed by and subject only to the king. assuming a certain degree of state, the admiral appeared at isabela richly dressed, with ten escuderos de á pié, or squires of foot, and twenty familiares, composing his civil and military family. he had been directed before leaving spain to appoint in each of the several settlements or colonies which should be planted an alcalde, or justice, exercising the combined duties of mayor and judge, with jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases, appeal being to the admiral; also an alguacil mayor, or high sheriff; and, if necessary, an ayuntamiento, or town council. all edicts, orders, and commissions must be issued in the name of the sovereigns, countersigned by the notary, with the royal seal affixed. the admiral had been further directed to build a warehouse where the royal stores should be kept, and all traffic should be subject to his direction. when he sailed upon his cuban expedition he left for the direction of the colony a junta, of which his brother diego was president, and alonso sanchez carvajal, juan de luxan, pedro fernandez coronel, and father buil, councillors.

diego colon was a well-meaning man, gentle and discreet, approaching in visage and dress nearer the priest than the cavalier; he was neither shrewd nor energetic. bartolomé was quite the opposite, and in many respects was the ablest of the brothers. powerful in mind and body, authoritative and determinate in demeanor, generous in disposition, fearless in spirit, 176 a thorough seaman, a man of no narrow worldly experience, fairly educated, and talented with the pen, he was neither the amiable, inefficient diego, nor the dreamy, enthusiastic admiral.

quick to notice in their deputy any indication of misrule, or undue assumption of authority, their majesties did not fail to lend an attentive ear to the charges preferred against him. yet the record does not show from first to last that either isabella or ferdinand ever really desired or intended to do columbus injustice or injury. when torres returned from spain, after the first accusation had been made, the sovereigns, besides a letter expressing the warmest confidence in the discoverer, and high consideration for the affairs of the colony, sent a special real provision ordering all to obey the admiral as themselves, under penalty of ten thousand maravedís for every offence. when further accusations came, instead of divesting him of his authority, they sent as commissioner of inquiry juan aguado, a warm friend of the admiral. often they checked fonseca's too harsh measures with regard to columbus and his brothers, and interposed their royal protection from such officers as acted too severely under the exasperating folly of the admiral. to satisfy the discoverer would have been impossible for any patron, so wild were his desires, so chimerical his plans, so injudicious his acts.

aguado arrived at isabela in october. he brought four caravels laden with supplies, and diego colon, passenger. soon it was noised abroad that the conduct of the admiral was to be questioned, whereat both white men and red rejoiced. aguado could but see the pitiable state of things upon the island, idleness, poverty, excesses, and disobedience among the colonists, folly and mismanagement among the rulers, and seeing, could but report accordingly; for which, and for no other reasons that i am able to 177 discover, the biographers of columbus heap upon the commissioner opprobrious epithets.

when aguado returned to spain, columbus accompanied him to make such excuses before the sovereigns as best he might. they embarked from isabela march 10, 1496, leaving the adelantado in command, and carrying with them two hundred and twenty-five disaffected colonists, and a number of indian captives, among whom was the proud and once powerful chieftain, caonabo, so treacherously taken by ojeda. contrary winds and starvation attended them, caonabo dying during the voyage. arrived at cádiz in june, the admiral found pedro alonso ni?o about to sail with three caravels for hayti. ni?o carried out more priests, and brought back more slaves.

columbus appeared in spain in a franciscan garb and with dejected demeanor. to all the world, except to himself, it was by this time evident that his gorgeous india was a myth, and settlement on the supposition of its existence a mistake. he seemed now dazed by reverses, as formerly he had been dazed by successes. nevertheless, he continued to make as much as possible of his discoveries, parading a brother of caonabo in a broad gold collar with a massive gold chain attached.

still the sovereigns were gracious. they scarcely alluded to the complaints and ever-increasing charges against the admiral, but confirmed anew his dignities, enlarged his perquisites, and showed him every kindness. the title of adelantado was formally vested by them in bartolomé. when asked for more ships and money, they readily granted both; moreover, they offered the admiral a tract of land in hayti, twenty-five by fifty leagues, which, however, he declined; they offered him sixty sailors, a hundred and forty soldiers, one hundred miners, mechanics, and farmers, and thirty women, the services of all to be paid by the crown. but because there 178 was some delay, occasioned by the operations in italy and the armada for flanders, the biographers of the admiral again break out in abuse of the sovereigns and their servants. the truth is, ferdinand and isabella stood by the genoese much longer than did their subjects. for example, when certain millions of maravedís, equivalent to over a hundred thousand dollars to-day, had been appropriated, and eight vessels equipped, so unpopular had the admiral and his enterprises become, that it was found necessary to press sailors into the service, and empty the prisons for colonists. and it was only when their admiral, viceroy, and governor of the indies so far forgot himself, when on the point of sailing, as publicly, and with his own hand and foot, to strike down and kick jimeno de berviesca, an official under fonseca, that the sovereigns began to realize the unfitness of columbus for the management of colonies. it was a serious offense to attack a public servant; and when this was done under the very eyes of royalty, and by the man they had so delighted to honor, the truth came home to them, and they never afterward regarded the genoese with the same degree of favor. yet for his great merits, his genius, enthusiasm, and perseverance, and for the glory unparalleled conferred by him on spain, they would ever be to him just and generous. he could never become again the pauper pilot, as he had been called at granada while begging help for his first voyage.

third voyage.

two vessels were despatched to the colony under pedro fernandez coronel early in 1498. on the 30th of may columbus embarked from san lúcar with six vessels, arrived at the northern seaboard of south america, and discovered there the isle of trinidad the 31st of july, sailed through the gulf of paria, where gold and pearls were seen in profusion, discovered the margarita islands, and came to 179 hayti, arriving off the river ozema, on the southern side of the island, the 30th of august.

prior to the last departure of the admiral for spain, gold had been discovered in this vicinity, and during his absence a military post, called san cristóbal, had been planted there, and at the adjacent harbor a fort built, which was named santo domingo, and which was from this time the capital of the indies. at intervals during the past two years, the adelantado at the head of his marauders had scoured the island, collecting the quarterly tribute, and making observation on such measures as he thought might increase the same. insurrections had been occasionally organized by the caciques, but were usually stifled by the prompt and politic action of the adelantado. many of the colonists had gradually relaxed in their loyalty to columbus, until finally, at the instigation of francisco roldan, they declared their independence of the adelantado, though still acknowledging fealty to spain. after creating no small disturbance about concepcion and isabela, roldan had retired with his band to the province of jaraguá.

affairs at santo domingo.

on landing at santo domingo, the admiral first proclaimed his approval of the adelantado's measures, and then set about to pacify the colonists. with the common people, many officers of trust had joined the revolt of roldan. columbus offered amnesty to all, which was at first refused, and letters from both sides were sent to spain. but at length there was reconciliation; roldan became a partisan of columbus, and assisted in subduing other hostile factions, which resulted in flinging adrian de moxica off the battlements of fort concepcion.

the distracted state of the colony, the continued charges against columbus, and the inadequate returns from large outlays, impelled the sovereigns to send out another commission with power to punish offenders, civil and criminal, and, if necessary, to 180 supersede the admiral in the government. the commissioner chosen for this purpose was francisco de bobadilla, an arrogant, shallow-minded man, who delighted rather in degrading merit than in exercising justice. he was authorized by letters patent to acquaint himself concerning the truth of the rebellion against the admiral; what robberies, cruelties, or other overt acts had been committed; he was directed to seize the person and sequestrate the property of any offender, or punish in any way he might deem best. a provisional letter was addressed by the sovereigns to the admiral of the ocean sea, ordering him to surrender to the commissioner all forts, arms, ships, houses, cattle, or other public property, which letter was to be used only if necessary. bobadilla, accompanied by a body-guard of twenty-five men, sailed with two caravels in july, 1500, and arrived at santo domingo on the 23d of august. by this opportunity some of the indians sent over by columbus as slaves were returned in charge of six friars. it is doubtful whether the enslavement of the red man could ever have been made profitable, but whether it could or not, the catholic church is entitled to much credit for thus promptly setting its foot upon the diabolical traffic which had already received the approval of some of the first jurists of the day. indeed the doctrine that the indians were not endowed with souls was rapidly spreading, and had found many believers, and had not the pope fortunately at this juncture decided against the proposition, the subject of indian slavery would not have been so easily or so quickly settled.

unwarranted conduct of bobadilla.

among the first objects to meet the eye of bobadilla, on landing, were the bodies of two spaniards swinging from gibbets, which argued not very favorably for the quietude of the island. columbus was absent at fort concepcion; the adelantado and roldan were pursuing rebels in jaraguá; diego colon, who was in charge at santo domingo, was 181 peremptorily commanded to surrender certain prisoners, which he refused to do until the admiral, whose commission was higher than that of bobadilla, and under whom he served, should order it.

thereupon bobadilla broke open the jail, and the prisoners were finally set at liberty. he not only assumed the custody of the crown property, but he entered the house of columbus, took possession of his effects, and made his residence there. he sided with the late insurgents, giving ear only to them. next he ordered to appear before him the admiral, who came with all quietness, and was immediately ironed and cast into prison. the brothers of columbus met the same fate. it was a most villainous proceeding on the part of bobadilla, wholly unauthorized, wholly unnecessary. columbus was condemned before he was tried. while in the act of coming forward of his own accord, not with hostile front, but unattended, he was seized, manacled, and incarcerated. it was not until afterward that he was charged with inflicting on the colonists, even on hidalgos, oppressive labor, abuse, and cruel punishments; with failing to provide them sufficient food; with opposing royal authority; with secreting gold and pearls; and with unjust treatment of the natives, making unnecessary war upon them, levying iniquitous tribute, preventing their conversion, and sending them as slaves to spain. some went so far as to hint at an intended transfer of allegiance to some other power. but were all the calumnies true, twice told, which vile, revengeful men had heaped upon him, he would not have merited the treatment that he now received at the hand of their majesties' agent. ever loyal, high-minded, and sincere, ever performing his duties to the best of his ability, the worst that can be truthfully said of him is that he was unfitted by temperament and training, unfitted by his genius, by those very qualities which made him so superior to other men in other directions, for 182 organizing in a tropical wilderness that social thrift upon which might be built a staid community out of the ignorant, presumptuous, and desperate element fresh from conflicts with jews and moors.

after having been subjected to much insult and indignity, the three brothers were placed on shipboard and sent to spain. andrés martin, master of the caravel, offered to remove the manacles, but the admiral said no. it was by the king's agent the irons were put on; it must be by the king's order if ever they are taken off. "and i will always keep these chains," he added with proud bitterness, "as memorials of reward for faithful services."

both ferdinand and isabella and all the people were shocked to see the illustrious discoverer in such a plight. immediately the sovereigns heard of it the chains were stricken off, and the prisoners released. from the odious abasement into which he had been unjustly thrust by an infamous agent, columbus was once more lifted high into favor by the sovereigns, whose moist eyes testified their hearts' sincerity.