communism and socialism represent different and yet allied movements of theory and practice. they aim to improve the common lot of humanity, in particular that of the lower classes, in a radical manner and by the application of thoroughgoing measures. now, when we utter the word improvement we indicate a desire to change, and consequently dissatisfaction with the state which is to be changed. this brings us at once to the common standing-ground of politico-economic reformers. they are one and all dissatisfied with the present condition of society. we have, therefore, in the first place, to examine the accusations which are brought against the social régime of our time.

complaints against the methods of producing and distributing wealth are not new; complaints of such a character as we hear at present, however, have originated since the middle of the eighteenth century. before the french revolution, dissatisfaction with the then existing order of things had been expressed[2] often enough, and had even led to rebellion; but the economic life of christendom was then different from what it is now, and consequently the discontent and the proposed measures of reform were not of the same nature. while the study of the condition of the laboring classes in ancient times and the middle ages is highly profitable, it is not necessary to go farther back than the latter part of the eighteenth century to obtain a tolerably accurate notion of existing socialism and communism.

a brief examination of the peculiarities of modern socialistic schemes will make this plain. one of these is to be found in the developed self-consciousness and awakened desires of the poor, taking their origin in democratic institutions and increased enlightenment. another is the greater prominence given to capital in the present system of production. disputes concerning capital-profit and wages now lead to communistic and socialistic schemes. “such war-cries,” to use the words of sch?ffle’s “socialism as presented by kaufmann,” “as we find lassalle raising against capital, would not have been even understood among the ancients and the oppressed classes of the middle ages. the promises held out by agitators to the masses now are: equal rights for all, no monopolies, liberty and equality for the people. liberalism itself has paved the way to communism. the right of coalition among laborers for their own interests, liberty of the press, the extension of the suffrage, together with the facility of rapid and cheap inter-communication by post and telegraph, afford laborers the means for united action where their interests are at stake. the working-man of our day has a consciousness of his own power quite unparalleled by any of his compeers in former ages.”

[3]

a third peculiarity of modern forms of communism and socialism is their cosmopolitan and practical character. all the plans of reformers, described in this work, were meant to be executed and to inaugurate a new era in the development of humanity. attempts have been made, or are being made, to realize every one of them. older socialistic schemes are of two kinds. those of the first class were applied only to sects or small associations. such were the communities of buddhist and christian monks and the villages of the essenes in judea. those of the second class were dreamy and speculative. no attempt was made by their authors or any group of immediate disciples to regenerate the world by substituting them for existing social and economic organizations. of this character were the “republic” of plato and the “utopia” of sir thomas more. even the speculations of french writers immediately preceding the revolution, like mably, morelly, brissot de warville, and jean jacques rousseau, were of this kind. jean brissot, for example, tickled the palates of those craving literary and philosophical sensation by declaring private property theft, and then defended private property in the national convention of 1792;[1] while rousseau, only a few months after lamenting that the first man who laid claim to property had not been instantly denounced as the arch foe of the human race, speaks respectfully in his “political economy” of property as the basis of the social compact, whose first condition was that every one should be protected in its enjoyment.[2][4] morley says of him that he “never thought of the subversion of society or its reorganization on a communistic basis,” and that would hold generally of french socialistic thinkers before 1789. modern socialists and communists, on the other hand, not only think of a reorganization of society, but work with might and main to accomplish it. this at once draws a broad line between them. this difference finds expression in new designations. a man without property is no longer what he was previous to the french revolution—viz., a poor man; he is a proletarian, while the class to which he belongs are not called collectively the poor, but the proletariat.

previous to the french revolution an attempt had been made to embrace all the inhabitants of a state in some shape in a fixed and definite social organism. there were the ruling classes, consisting of the nobility and the clergy, and the commons. the latter were, to be sure, hewers of wood and carriers of water for the two higher estates, but they were bound to them in a certain manner. the feudal lord usually felt some sort of concern for the welfare of his vassals, looked after their interests, when these interests were attacked by others, and in a general way afforded them protection to be found only in his wealth and power. the greatest of the feudal lords, the sovereign, was the mighty father of all, and his government was often a shield to the weak and helpless. the third estate, the bourgeoisie—those who pursued trades and commerce—were connected together, and with the rest of society, by guilds and corporations. the arrangements of these institutions brought into close personal contact master and laborers. manufactures were conducted in small shops, where the employer worked[5] side by side with two or three journeymen and apprentices, the latter living in the master’s house. according to the rules of the guilds the apprentice became a journeyman in a few years, and the journeyman rose in time to the rank of master. thus there were common experiences and common feelings to unite employers and employed. they were not distinct and separate classes, with interests sharply antagonistic to one another.

it is so unusual to hear one speak a good word for the institutions of the middle ages, that i fear the reader will be tempted to exclaim, “can any good thing come out of nazareth?” but that it may not be necessary to take my ipse dixit for believing that there was a favorable side to feudalism, i will quote the testimony of thorold rogers, professor of political economy in the university of oxford, and one of the most distinguished economists of our time. “it is in vain to rejoice over the aggregate of our prosperity,” says professor rogers, in his “history of agriculture and prices,”[3] “and to forget that great part of the nation has no share in its benefits. it may be that the wisdom of our forefathers was accidental; it is certain that society was divided by less sharp lines, and was held together by common ties in a far closer manner, in the times which it has been my fortune to study [the middle ages], than it is now. the feudal system of the middle ages was one of mutual interests; its theory of property involved far more exacting duties than modern rights ever acknowledge, or remember, or perhaps know.”

the war of la vendée, in the french revolution,[6] gives striking corroboration of this view of feudalism. in the western part of france, particularly in anjou, feudal institutions still retained their better characteristics, while in other provinces large landed proprietors intrusted their estates to agents, that they might lead idle and dissipated lives in paris. the landlords of la vendée and the surrounding country lived on their manors, and took a paternal interest in the well-being of their peasants and dependents. the relations of church and people were those of protection and affection. the result was the obstinate adherence of this part of france to the old order of things, and the stubborn resistance of the peasants of anjou and poitou to the revolution.[4]

yes, it is true; much more can be said in favor of the social organization of the middle ages than is commonly supposed. nor were those times so backward as many think. cities like nuremberg, in germany, show remains of the civilization of the middle ages which convince one that a considerable grandeur had then been attained, and that the people of those times were by no means in every respect inferior to us. but the framework of this past civilization, not admitting of expansion, broke to pieces. it was not large enough for the modern growth of population and wealth. its institutions were abused by those in power, and in a time of general corruption and oppression they fell with a terrible crash. the french revolution swept them away forever. while this revolution formed one of the grandest epochs in history, it[7] left society in a singularly disorganized state. no one appeared to be connected with his fellow-man. each one stood alone by himself. the individualistic and atomistic condition of modern society had begun. in the reaction which followed upon restraint this was thought to be an unmixed good. each one was left free to pursue his own interests in his own way. commerce and industries took a wonderful start, and by the aid of inventions and discoveries expanded in such a rapid and all-embracing manner as to astound the world. it is probable that as we, after more than two thousand years, look back upon the time of pericles with wonder and astonishment as an epoch great in art and literature, posterity two thousand years hence will regard our era as forming an admirable and unparalleled epoch in the history of industrial invention. during this time of growth and increasing wealth it was at first generally thought that everything was moving along finely. the third estate had been emancipated. its members had no longer to bear alone the burdens of government. it betook itself to trade and manufactures, grew wealthy, and became the bourgeoisie of modern political economy. but speedily a fourth estate was discovered, whose members consisted of dependents—workers for daily wages. what had been done for them? they had also nominal freedom, but did they enjoy actual freedom? they were in possession of political equality, but had they advanced one single step in the direction of social and economic equality? there were not wanting those who went even further than to answer both of these questions in the negative. they pointed to the fact that the weak and needy had, as never before, lost all connection with the strong and powerful.[8] hundreds of laborers crowded in a single shop lost all personal feeling with their one employer. formerly the distance between journeyman and master was slight, and the passage from the one condition to the other could invariably be effected by diligence and ability. this change of condition now became absolutely impossible for the greater number. the majority of those engaged in manufactures must, in the nature of things, remain common laborers. a few, unusually gifted or favored, might hope to rise, but even for them it became ever more difficult to ascend the social ladder. on the one hand, the division of labor was carried so far that the labor performed by each was exceedingly simple. instead of taxing the ingenuity, and thereby conducing to mental development, the endless repetition and sameness of the labor tended to make one stupid. on the other hand, inventions rendered it necessary not only to employ an ever-increasing number of machines, but to make use of those which were constantly becoming more expensive.[5] the gulf between employer and employed widened unceasingly. the employer, losing personal feeling with his laborers, too often forgot that they were men with natures like his own. frequently, it must be acknowledged, he looked upon them as mere beasts of burden, and regarded their labor in the same light as any other commodity which was sold in the market-place. they were hired for the cheapest price, worked to the utmost limit of endurance, and, when used-up, thrown aside like any other old and worthless machine. the capitalist grew richer, and among the higher classes[9] of society luxury and extravagance increased. the laborer, noticing all this, asked himself if his lot had in any respect improved. he was inclined to deny that it had. his daily bread was not earned with less toil, nor was he surer of an opportunity to work. his existence was as uncertain and as full of anxiety as ever. being brought together in large shops with those in like condition, he talked over his wrongs and sufferings with them. a class-feeling was developed. the heartlessness and assumed superiority of those who had become suddenly, and often by mere chance, wealthy were looked upon with frowns and gloomy countenances foreboding no good. the harsh separation in material goods between these parvenus and the lower classes was accompanied by no mitigating circumstances. in the case of the old and wealthy families of a more ancient era the superiority in wealth appeared more just, on account of lapse of time and a certain superiority in intellect and manners. they were, to a considerable extent, superior beings in other respects than mere externals. the new rich looked down upon and despised the orders from which they had so recently escaped, and were, in turn, hated by those beneath them. a division of society into caste-like classes was taking place. the rich were becoming richer; it was thought the poor were becoming poorer. free competition imposed no restraints upon the powerful. they were at liberty to exploit the poor to their heart’s content. the strength on the one side was so great, and the capability of resistance on the other so insignificant, that there could exist no real freedom of contract. as sismondi said, the rich man labored to increase his capital, the poor man to satisfy the cravings of his stomach. the one can[10] wait, the demands of the other are imperative. to the laborers their state appeared like “a hell without escape and without end” (mehring). they were prepared to listen to those who should preach them a gospel of hope, even if it involved violent change. revolution might help them; it could not render their lot more hopeless. they were ready to examine more critically the evils of society, when bidden to do so by their leaders. verily, they did not need to search long to discover many sore spots on the social body. the luxurious immorality of the parvenus in european capitals made no attempt to conceal itself. when the laborers were told that their wives and daughters were considered rightful booty by the wealthy, they remembered women of their class who had fallen a prey to the fascination of wealth and the elegance of the higher classes, and were angry. the peace of many of them had been ruthlessly destroyed by some rich voluptuary. perhaps a poor father, thinking of a fair daughter, whose employer in shop or factory had taken advantage of his position and her need to seduce her, gnashed his teeth in rage, and was ready to swear eternal vengeance against the bourgeoisie.[6]

[11]

but these things were noticed by the more thoughtful among the higher classes. they were bitterly disappointed. the doctrines of political and economic liberalism had been expected to usher in the millennium, and instead of that they beheld the same wretched, unhappy, sinful world, which they thought they had left. if there had been progress in the general condition of humanity, it was so slight that it was a matter of dispute. many, finding things in such a sad condition, one so different from what they had expected, affirmed boldly that we had been going from bad to worse.

in speaking of lamennais, the distinguished french christian socialist, the rev. mr. kaufmann, an english clergyman, describes the grief that eminent man experienced, as he observed the economic development of society after the great french revolution:[7][12] “it was lamennais’ fate to see three revolutionary waves pass over his country, and to watch with sorrow and bitterness of heart the disappointments to which they gave rise. he had seen the sore distress of the people whose condition the political changes of the first revolution left to all intents and purposes unimproved. it had, in fact, given rise to new social grievances. in destroying patriarchal relationships and feudal bonds of social union, it had handed over the masses to the tender mercies of free contract and competition. the introduction of machinery, with the rise of modern industry, had a pauperizing effect, and intensified popular discontent. hence the various socialistic and communistic schemes for the liberation of the working-classes from the ‘tyranny of capital,’ and the attempts to promote the free association of labor by means of voluntary co-operation following in the wake of revolution.

“every section of society was represented in this revolt against the excessive individualism of the laissez-faire system as the result of the new social contract. among the saviours of society who rose rapidly one after another—saint-simon, on the part of aristocratic crétins impoverished by the revolution; fourier, as the spokesman of the aggrieved lower middle-class, in danger of being crushed by the superior force of the plutocracy; bab?uf, representing the communistic materialism of the ‘common people’—each in their own way had their theories of social reconstruction; ... whilst a small band of generously minded churchmen, with lamennais at their head, made it their object to save society by means of spiritual regeneration.”

a reaction against liberalism set in. this was of two kinds. a romantic party, represented by adam[13] müller, and a conservative party, represented by the kreuzzeitung, advocated a return to the social organization of the middle ages. they dreamed of a golden age in the past, in which humble simplicity and trustful dependence on the part of the laborer were met by generous benevolence and protecting care on the part of the master. they thought it possible to restore a time in which the shepherd of salisbury plain, happy and contented because a kind providence had granted him salt for his potatoes, filled an ideal position.

the communistic and socialistic parties, on the other hand, urged the necessity of an advance to a totally new form of society. very unlike in many respects, in others these parties resemble and sympathize with each other. the accusations which they bring against our present condition of society are so similar that one often does not know whether one is reading the production of a social democrat or of an ultra-conservative.

i will quote the indictment of the great socialist, karl marx, against liberalism, which, it will be seen, might just as well have been written by a conservative. in fact, if i had been shown the passage and told that it appeared in the kreuzzeitung, i should not have been in the least surprised. “although the liberals,” says marx, “have not carried out their principles in any land as yet completely, still, the attempts which have been made are sufficient to prove the uselessness of their efforts. they endeavored to free labor, but only succeeded in subjecting it more completely under the yoke of capitalism; they aimed at setting at liberty all labor powers, and only riveted the chains of misery which held them bound; they[14] wanted to release the bondman from the clod, and deprived him of the soil on which he stood by buying up the land; they yearned for a happy condition of society, and only created superfluity on one hand and dire want on the other; they desired to secure for merit its own honorable reward, and only made it the slave of wealth; they wanted to abolish all monopolies, and placed in their stead the monster monopoly, capital; they wanted to do away with all wars between nation and nation, and kindled the flames of civil war; they wanted to get rid of the state, and yet have multiplied its burdens; they wanted to make education the common property of all, and made it the privilege of the rich; they aimed at the greatest moral improvement of society, and only left it in a state of rotten immorality; they wanted, to say all in a word, unbounded liberty, and have produced the meanest servitude; they wanted the reverse of all that which they actually obtained, and have thus given a proof that liberalism in all its ramifications is nothing but a perfect utopia.”[8]

before considering separately the different varieties of communism and socialism it is necessary to say a few words about the proper method of treating the subject. the movements indicated by the words communism and socialism are designed to aid especially the lower classes. if mankind generally were as happily situated as are what we call the middle and higher classes, these systems would never have been heard of. the members of the upper classes have nothing[15] to hope from communism or socialism, but have much which they might possibly lose—i say possibly, because i wish to express it in the most favorable manner. if wealthy and well-to-do writers and politicians oppose social reform they are consequently often suspected of advocating their own selfish interests exclusively. they are not likely, therefore, to have much success in converting socialists and communists, unless they manifest in word and deed their sincere concern for the welfare of their poorer brethren. i think, therefore, that we ought to strive first of all to understand thoroughly the various systems of social reformers, and then to describe them in such manner that their supporters themselves could not find fault with our representation. a kindly, well-disposed criticism might follow, with hope of doing some good. to understand people, however, we must have some sort of sympathy (σ?ν-παθο?—mitleiden) with them. we shall not be likely to comprehend a social system, if we approach it with coldness or, still worse, with hatred. the severe protestant is not likely to appreciate a madonna of raphael, unless he is able for a time to forget his protestantism and enter into the feelings of the devout roman catholic. as carlyle so finely says, “the heart lying dead, the eye cannot see.” so, to obtain an adequate idea of socialism and of the justice of its claims, we must imagine ourselves for the time being laborers, with all their trials and sufferings. we must endeavor to think ourselves into (hineindenken) their condition. nor let us suppose that there is anything to be feared from a disclosure of the full truth. it is only from the opposite course that danger is to be apprehended. as a distinguished american political economist has well said:[16] “the time has passed for dealing with the masses as children who are to be treated to truth in quantities and on occasions suited to their welfare or the interests of society. the political economist only abandons his ground of vantage and forfeits the confidence of the community when he accepts any responsibility for the use that may be made of the truth he discovers and discloses.”[9]

bearing this thought in mind, even a hasty examination of the vast majority of books written on socialism and communism shows how utterly worthless they are. their authors start out with such intense hatred of all socialistic systems, that it is simply impossible for them to understand these systems. but the worst of it is, that they couple their misunderstanding with such hard words and severe epithets as to excite bad blood and drive the various classes of society farther apart than ever. the wealthier classes lose their ardor for reform, and the poorer people become enraged. as i write, i take up the first book on communism which lies at my hand, and, opening it, find communists spoken of as “a hideous fraternity of conspirators.” i turn over a few pages and read this: “to-day there is not in our language, nor in any language, a more hateful word than communism.” of a sentence uttered by a socialist, this writer says “more pestilent words were never spoken.” on the next page communism is spoken of as “infecting” the russian universities. “now,” continues our author, “it poisons the blood and maddens the brains of artisans and peasants.” such words do more than excite[17] the anger of socialists. they arouse the indignation of every lover of fair play, and convince no one. i take up another work and find that a very different effect is produced on me as i read it. a kindly tone pervades it, which, if it does not convince error, tends at least to obtain the good-will of those whom it combats. this latter work to which i refer consists of “lectures on social questions,” and was written by the rev. dr. j. h. rylance, of st. mark’s church, new york, a large-hearted, fair-minded man.

once for all, we must rid ourselves of the notion that we can persuade people by misrepresenting them and calling them hard names. such conduct only reacts against ourselves. the folly of such a course has been demonstrated often enough by the history of socialism. a striking instance is given by mehring in his “history of social democracy in germany” (pp. 96-98).[10] it appears that a large number of working-men’s unions had formed an alliance (verband deutscher arbeitervereine), of which the party of progress (fortschrittspartei) had assumed the leadership. this is a political party which was violently opposed to lassalle, and had considerable sympathy with the doctrines of the manchester school. when lassalle began his agitation, the leaders of this party misrepresented his doctrines in shameful manner. it hardly seems as if their misrepresentation could have been otherwise than wilful. they appeared to believe that the end justified the means in fighting so odious an opponent, and that they were not required to treat him fairly and honestly. well, their programme worked brilliantly for a time. at the meetings of these working-men’s[18] unions members of the party of progress used to explain the doctrines of lassalle in such manner as to place them in a false light, and then let the laborers reject his plans by unanimous votes. union after union voted against him, and in the summer of 1863 these unions, at their annual meeting, professed the principles of the progressists, and selected a newspaper edited by a member of that party as their organ. in 1864, at the general meeting of the unions, some followers of lassalle contradicted the misstatements of the teachings of their master. this produced an effect, and friedrich a. lange, who had been elected a member of one of the committees of the alliance of the unions, warned the progressists against the course they were pursuing, and advocated the fairer, more honorable, and more manly method of warfare. he told them that a reaction would surely set in against themselves, when the laborers heard an adequate statement of lassalle’s plans, especially if they were presented in his own fiery, eloquent words. but lange’s earnest warnings were unheeded. the laborers learned how to reply to a fictitious, non-existent lassalle, but not to the real, living one. every annual meeting of the working-men’s unions witnessed, accordingly, an approach to social democracy until 1869, when it was accepted without reserve, and the alliance of working-men’s unions was merged into the social democratic working-men’s party (social-demokratische arbeiterpartei). as mehring forcibly observes: “it is, indeed, a singular misfortune, and manifests a rare lack of tact, to lead to the enemy as welcome auxiliaries not merely single recruits, but entire army corps” (p. 98). thousands of laborers might have been saved from social democracy if its opponents, in fighting it,[19] had adhered to the maxim, “honesty is the best policy.” in fact, mehring attributes the success and popularity of lassalle more to his enemies than to his own brilliant talents. falsehoods respecting his teachings were uttered by his opponents without compunction of conscience, and these, when exposed, only gave the laborers new confidence in lasalle, and less faith than ever in his enemies. newspapers abused him personally in such manner as to assist him in playing the r?le of a martyr and hero. they spoke of his unripe spirit and of his mental dependence upon a tailor by the name of weitling, at a time when the most renowned scholars of germany could not find words with which to express their almost unbounded admiration for his learning and talent.

as i wish to represent communism and socialism fairly, i will at once correct a few popular errors in regard to them.

first, then, it is supposed that advocates of these systems are poor, worthless fellows, who adopt the arts of a demagogue for the promotion in some way of their own interests, perhaps in order to gain a livelihood by agitating laborers and preying upon them. it is thought that they are moved by envy of the wealthier classes, and, themselves unwilling to work, long for the products of diligence and ability. this view is represented by the following well-known lines:

“what is a communist? one who hath yearnings

for equal division of unequal earnings;

idler or bungler, or both, he is willing

to fork out his penny and pocket your shilling.”

this is certainly a false and unjust view. the leading communists and socialists from the time of plato up to the present have been, for the most part, men of[20] character, wealth, talent, and high social standing. of plato it is unnecessary to speak, since people are not in the habit of calling him a shallow demagogue. sir thomas more, the author of the communistic romance “utopia,” was lovable, learned, and socially honored. robert owen, the english communist, was a wealthy manufacturer and a distinguished philanthropist. of rodbertus, marx, and lassalle i shall speak presently. if we examine the history of even those who are less known among the german social democrats of to-day, we shall discover that a great number have made sacrifices for their faith. hunted about and persecuted as they are, it is assuredly no light matter to proclaim one’s self a social democrat. while, of course, among communists and socialists, selfishness, meanness, and enough that is contemptible may be found, i do not believe any movement of modern society is able to exhibit a greater amount of unselfish devotion than that they represent.

a second charge against the communists consists in making them responsible for the doings of the parisian mob in 1871. the error of this has been explained often enough. it is due largely to an accidental resemblance between the words commune and communism. many who use the word commune glibly have a very imperfect understanding of its significance, and little imagine that it is as harmless and innocent a word as township, and means pretty much the same thing. the commune, with an emphasis on the article, means simply paris, or, in a secondary sense, the administrative officers collectively governing paris. france is divided into departments and communes, the same as our states are divided into counties and townships, and paris by itself[21] forms one of these communes. the insurrection in paris, of march 18, 1871, was one in favor of extreme local self-government. the idea was to make each commune at least as independent as one of the states of the united states, and to unite all the communes into a confederation with limited powers.[11] the movement in favor of the autonomy of paris is an old one, and has been supported by many able and respectable frenchmen. one in favor of the movement is, however, properly called a communalist, and not a communist, and the movement itself is communalism—not communism. a careful study of the decrees of the commune, of the reports and of the various histories which have described its rebellion in 1871, shows that the movement was political, primarily, and only to a very limited extent economic. even the economic decrees, like the stay-laws, postponing the time for payment of debts due, might be regarded as war measures. however, out of the seventy and more members of the communal government nine or ten were social democrats and members of the international, and it is probable that concessions may have been made to win them and their adherents. they were effectual in this, since the internationalists were disposed to favor the movement from the start, and that for two reasons. first, believing that their ends can be attained only by revolution, they are inclined to look favorably upon any revolution whatever, as tending to cultivate a revolutionary spirit in the people. second, they favor the[22] autonomy of large cities, holding that the masses in the cities might more readily be induced to adopt communistic and socialistic reforms, if not held in check by the more conservative rural population.[12]

but let us ask ourselves this question: if all the members of the communal government had been communists in the ordinary sense of the word, would communism have been necessarily condemned? i think that another question will help us to answer this. all the members of that government were republicans: was republicanism then necessarily condemned? no one but a rabid tory would think of giving an affirmative answer to this second question. it is at once seen that the republican form of government is not responsible for the conduct of every scoundrel who professes republican principles.

it is urged further that communism and socialism would destroy religion and the family institution. the reason of this complaint is evident enough. a number of social reformers have been at the same time atheists and advocates of free love. the questions of atheism and free love are, however, totally different from that of even communism, the most radical of all the reforms proposed. there is no necessary connection whatever between them. if it could once be[23] shown that communism were practicable, it would be easy to give many reasons for supposing that in such a society the love between man and wife and parents and children would be freer from selfish and sordid motives than at present.[13] the clergy are partly to blame for the irreligious attitude of many modern socialists. they have too often made themselves the advocates of conservatism simply as conservatism, regardless of all abuses which it embraced. in countries where church and state are connected, the clergy have been too often a sort of police, assisting the government to maintain existing institutions, and to oppose change, good or bad. they have favored the higher classes, upon whom their support has depended, and neglected the interests of the poor and down-trodden. i do not write this as an enemy of the church, but as her friend. nor do i express myself differently from the best of our clergymen at present. rev. dr. rylance,[24] indeed, has, in his “lectures on social questions,” clothed this same thought in stronger language. in one place he says, “the proper relations of christianity to the legitimate efforts of socialism to improve the condition of the suffering classes will never be understood, or the minds of those now alienated from the religion of christ will never be disabused of their antipathy, till the essential claims of that religion be set in fairer and fuller light; all the perversions it has suffered being frankly acknowledged, and the wrongs done in its name, as far as possible, atoned for. your church histories are full of such perversions, while your most expert apologists cannot disguise the wrongs ... ecclesiasticism[14] has often been a fraud and a tyranny in history. as the church grew in power and wealth, it allied itself to power and wealth in the hands of civil rulers and their creatures, and the fruits of the alliance have often been wicked and infamous.”

dr. rylance also declares that christianity is a sort of socialism, and quotes in proof these texts of scripture, among others: “as every man hath received the gift, even so minister the same one to another.” “if ye fulfil the royal law, thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself, ye do well; but if ye have respect to persons, ye commit sin.” “this commandment have we from him, that he who loveth god, love his brother also.”[15]

[25]

“one way of aspersing the doctrines of communism,” says another writer,[16] “is to call them anti-christian. it is forgotten that the christian idea of equality underlies all the reasonings of communism, and communism has succeeded only in so far as it was christian in principle, having for its fundamental maxim brotherly love. in this, communism is much more christian than the hankering after privileges of the old aristocracy, or the unbounded avarice of the plutocracy.”

there are other false accusations brought against communism and socialism, which it is not necessary to examine now. a well-disposed person will scarcely experience difficulty in separating them from scientific argument.

it behooves us to disabuse our minds of all prejudice and ill-will. it is only thus that we shall be able to meet and overcome the social dangers which threaten even our own country in a not very distant future. we have never had a permanent laboring class, but[26] with the increase of population one is rapidly developing. if it is now becoming extremely difficult for the laborer to rise, what will the condition of things be when we number two hundred millions? and that time is not so far off. at our present rate of increase, it will come when some of us are still living. it is a laboring class without hope of improvement for themselves or their children which will first test our institutions. but he must be singularly blind or unacquainted with the views of the various social classes who is unable to detect even now, in certain quarters, the formation of habits and modes of thought characteristic of the poorer classes in europe. the fact of this growth was twice brought home to me forcibly two winters ago. as i was walking by the union league club-house, in new york city, at the time of its house-warming, while the people were driving up in their fine carriages, one poor fellow stood on the opposite side of the street watching the ladies enter in their luxurious and extravagant toilets. he was a good-looking, intelligent-appearing man, but wore no overcoat. it was a cold evening, and he seemed to me to be shivering. he was evidently thinking of the difference between his lot and that of the fashionable people he was observing; and i heard him mutter bitterly to himself, “a revolution will yet come and level that fine building to the ground.” a friend of mine, about the same time, passed a couple of laborers as he was walking by mr. vanderbilt’s new houses on fifth avenue. some kind of bronze work, i believe, was being carried in, and he heard one of them remark, savagely, “the time will come when that will be melted by fire.”

more significant and more ominous still is the reception[27] accorded in this country to a man like john most, who has been expelled from the social-democratic party in germany on account of his extreme views, particularly respecting assassination as a means of progress. he has been travelling about the united states, has been warmly received, and listened to with favor by large bodies of workmen while uttering counsels of war and bloodshed. on the 11th of february, 1883, he lectured in baltimore. it was a cold, rainy, cheerless day, and the sidewalks were so covered with melting snow as to make it extremely unpleasant to venture out of doors. but most had a full hall of eager listeners. he told the laborers that he had little hope of their overthrowing their oppressors by the use of the ballot. he believed their emancipation would be brought about by violence, as all great reforms in the past had been. he consequently advised them to buy muskets. he said a musket was a good thing to have. if it was not needed now, it could be placed in the corner, and it occupied but little space. the presiding officer, in closing the meeting, emphasized this part of most’s address particularly. he told the laborers that a piece of paper would never make them free, that a musket was worth a hundred votes, and closed with the lines—

“nur pulver und blei,

die machen uns frei”—

“lead and powder alone can make us free.” there can be no doubt that a considerable portion of his hearers sympathized with his views. they listened approvingly, and applauded his fiercest remarks most loudly.

nor is it without significance that in new york[28] alone at least three social democratic newspapers are published. two of the three use the german language; one of these is a weekly only; the other appears in a daily, a weekly, and a special sunday edition. the third paper is an english weekly, but it announces the appearance of a daily edition in the near future. the motto of one of these papers—most’s freiheit—is “gegen die tyrannen sind alle mittel gesetzlich”—“all measures are legal against tyrants”—i.e., against our employers, against capitalists, against all classes superior to the laboring class.

it is not, however, necessary to take a pessimistic view of our prospects, for it rests with us to shape the future. if we, as a people, become divided into two great hostile camps—those who possess economic goods and those who do not—the one class devoted to luxury and self-indulgence, the other given up to envy and bitterness—then, indeed, dire evils are in store for us; but we have reason to hope better things. the attitude of clergymen like dr. howard crosby[17] and dr. rylance, the generosity of our philanthropists, unparalleled in past history, and the noble efforts of noble women to relieve every kind of suffering and distress, lead us to trust that, as new evils arise, strength and wisdom will be vouchsafed us to conquer them, and that among us the idea of the brotherhood of man will ever become more and more a living reality.