i consider it, therefore, an indication of human weakness to inquire into the figure and form of god. for whatever god be, if there be any god distinct from the world, and wherever he exists, he is all sense, all sight, all hearing, all life, all mind, and all within himself. to believe that there are a number of gods, derived from the virtues and vices of man, as chastity, concord, understanding, hope, honor, clemency, and fidelity; or, according to the opinion of democritus, that there are only two, punishment and reward, indicates still greater folly. human nature, weak and frail as it is, mindful of its own infirmity, has made these divisions, so that every one might have recourse to that which he supposed himself to stand more particularly in need of. hence we find different names employed by different nations; the inferior deities are arranged in classes, and diseases and plagues are deified, in consequence of our anxious wish to propitiate them. it was from this cause that a temple was dedicated to fever, at the public expense, on the palatine hill, and that an altar was erected to good fortune on the esquiline. hence we may understand how it comes to pass that there is a greater population of the celestials than of human beings, since each individual makes a separate god for himself, adopting his own juno and his own genius. to suppose that some gods should be old and always gray-headed and others young and like children, some of a dark complexion, winged, lame, produced from eggs, living and dying on alternate days, is puerile and foolish enough. but it is the height of impudence to imagine that they have contests and quarrels, and that there are gods of theft and of various crimes. to assist man is to be a god; this is the path to eternal glory. this is the path which the roman 13 nobles formerly pursued, and this is the path which is now pursued by the greatest ruler of our age, vespasian augustus, he who has come to the relief of an exhausted empire, as well as by his sons. the ancient mode of remunerating those who deserved it was to regard them as gods. for the names of all the gods, as well as of the stars that i have mentioned above, have been derived from their services to mankind. and with respect to jupiter and mercury, and the rest of the celestial nomenclature, who does not admit that they have reference to certain natural phenomena?

but it is ridiculous to suppose, that the great head of all things, whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairs. can we believe, or rather can there be any doubt, that it is not polluted by such a disagreeable and complicated office? it is not easy to determine which opinion would be most for the advantage of mankind, since we observe some who have no respect for the gods, and others who carry it to a scandalous excess. they are slaves to foreign ceremonies; they carry on their fingers the gods and the monsters whom they worship;[14] they condemn and they lay great stress on certain kinds of food; they impose on themselves dreadful ordinances, not even sleeping quietly. they do not marry or adopt children, or indeed do anything else, without the sanction of their sacred rites. there are others, on the contrary, who will cheat in the very capitol, and will forswear themselves even by jupiter tonans,[15] and while these thrive in their crimes, the others torment themselves with their superstitions to no purpose.

among these discordant opinions mankind have discovered for themselves a kind of intermediate deity, by which our scepticism concerning god is still increased. for all over the world, in all places, and at all times, fortune is the only god 14 whom every one invokes; she alone is spoken of, she alone is accused and is supposed to be guilty; she alone is in our thoughts, is praised and blamed, and is loaded with reproaches; wavering as she is, conceived by the generality of mankind to be blind, wandering, inconstant, uncertain, variable, and often favoring the unworthy. to her are referred all our losses and all our gains, and in casting up the accounts of mortals she alone balances the two pages of our sheet. we are so much in the power of chance, that change itself is considered as a god, and the existence of god becomes doubtful.

but there are others who reject this principle and assign events to the influence of the stars, and to the laws of our nativity; they suppose that god, once for all, issues his decrees and never afterwards interferes. this opinion begins to gain ground, and both the learned and the unlearned vulgar are falling into it. hence we have the admonitions of thunder, the warnings of oracles, the predictions of sooth-sayers, and things too trifling to be mentioned, as sneezing and stumbling with the feet reckoned among omens. the late emperor augustus relates, that he put the left shoe on the wrong foot, the day when he was near being assaulted by his soldiers. and such things as these so embarrass improvident mortals, that among all of them this alone is certain, that there is nothing certain, and that there is nothing more proud or more wretched than man. for other animals have no care but to provide for their subsistence, for which the spontaneous kindness of nature is all-sufficient; and this one circumstance renders their lot more especially preferable, that they never think about glory, or money, or ambition, and, above all, that they never reflect on death.

the belief, however, that on these points the gods superintend human affairs is useful to us, as well as that the punishment of crimes, although sometimes tardy, from the deity being occupied with such a mass of business, is never entirely remitted. and indeed this constitutes the great comfort in 15 this imperfect state of man, that even the deity cannot do everything. for he cannot procure death for himself, even if he wished it, which, so numerous are the evils of life, has been granted to man as our chief good. nor can he make mortals immortal, or recall to life those who are dead; nor can he effect, that he who has once lived shall not have lived, or that he who has enjoyed honors shall not have enjoyed them; nor has he any influence over past events but to cause them to be forgotten. and, if we illustrate the nature of our connection with god by a less serious argument, he cannot make twice ten not to be twenty, and many other things of this kind.