great events frequently arise from trifling causes; and it is possible, that had count julian challenged the goth roderic for having dishonoured his daughter, instead of requesting the aid of the moors, spain would not have been for eight centuries under the yoke of the infidels. at this period of the peninsular history duelling was unknown, although it is to the arabs that some writers have attributed the institution of chivalry; and, most unquestionably, the poem of antar may be considered a recital of chivalric deeds and adventures, as romantic as any record of knight-errantry or tournament. this curious work was the production of asma? the grammarian, reader to the famed kalif aroun-al-raschid, and appears to have been written about the year 800. the hero of this romance always fights on horseback; his steed is named abjer, his resistless sword dhamy; and the loves of khaled and dja?da are certainly as whimsical and adventurous as those of any 330 couple in the palmy days of chivalry. it is more than probable that many more chivalric tales would have been found amongst the moors, had not cardinal ximenes ordered all their religious works to be burnt, after the taking of cordova, when the soldiery destroyed every ms. they could find. few of these valuable documents were preserved; and those that are now in the escurial relate chiefly to grammar, astrology, and theology. florian has given the following opinion of the moors:—“a gallantry, delicate and refined, rendered the moors of grenada celebrated over europe, and formed a strange contrast with the natural ferocity of the african races. these mussulmans, who in the battle prided themselves on their dexterity in cutting off heads, which they suspended at their saddle-bows, to exhibit them afterwards at the gates of their palaces, were the most tender, impassioned, and devoted lovers. their wives, although in a servile condition, became absolute sovereigns when they were beloved. it was to please them that they sought for glory, and exposed their lives, rivalling each other in the magnificence of their festivals and their deeds of valour. was this strange anomaly of mildness and ferocity, of delicate feelings and cruelty, transmitted from the spaniards to the moors, or did the former imbibe these mingled sentiments from their infidel invaders? this is uncertain: 331 one can only remark, that such a mixed character was unknown in asia, the birth-place of these arabs, and is still less observed in africa, where their conquests naturalized them. from this circumstance i am disposed to think that it was due to the spaniards. in fact, subsequent to the moorish invasion, the court of the kings of the goths exhibited various instances of this disposition. after this period, we see the knights of leon, of navarre, and of castile, as renowned for the ardour of their love, as for their deeds of arms; and the name of the cid must recall vivid recollections of tenderness and of valour.”

the celebrated combat between four spanish knights and four arabs of the tribe of zegris, the implacable foes of the abencerrages, has been the subject both of poetical fiction and historical record. this meeting was to vindicate the honour of the sultana zoraide, accused by the zegris of an adulterous intercourse with aben hamet. the indignant husband had decapitated the offender, and exiled the abencerrages. zoraide was condemned to the stake, unless some champion came forward to maintain her innocence. juan chacon, of carthagena, answered the appeal of honour, and, accompanied by three other knights, appeared in the square of grenada in front of the alhambra, and in presence of the whole court. the beautiful princess was covered 332 with a black veil, and placed on a scaffold, round which were heaped the faggots that were to consume her, in the event of her champions being conquered; but they, fortunately for her, overthrew their infidel antagonists, and proved her innocence.

in 1491 a young spaniard fought and killed a moor, when ferdinand, as a reward of his valour, authorised him to bear as his motto the letters of the ave maria; and roderic telles, grand master of calatrava, was renowned for his many combats with the infidels. the annals of spanish valour abound with instances of duelling, which was sanctioned and even encouraged by various laws, more especially in castile and aragon.

it appears that in 1165 the king and council of aragon abolished the practice; yet, in 1519, we find it to have been so frequent, that charles v. issued an edict to forbid it. nor can we be surprised at the state of barbarism in which spain was involved: the continued incursions of the moors, the undisciplined state of the troops, without pay or provisions, and the incessant feuds, not only between the nobles and their sovereigns, but amongst each other and their vassals, must have occasioned constant tumult and discord. society was not secured by any pact; and rude passions alone dictated the actions of these unruly barbarians, for such, 333 despite their affectation of gallantry, they must be called. the unfortunate inhabitants, exposed to these continued depredations, were obliged to incorporate themselves into military bodies, to protect life and property; and we find in 1260 they had assembled in a brotherhood, under the protection of their saints, forming what was called the santa hermandada, a corps which gradually dwindled into a paid police force, resembling the maréchaussée and gendarmerie of france. the immortal author of don quixote often refers to this military jurisdiction, which in reality mainly contributed to put an end to the atrocities that were daily committed; and it was chiefly during the reign of ferdinand the catholic that these excesses were restrained.

not unfrequently was religion mixed up with these ferocious broils; and we find the founder of the order of the jesuits, loyola, offering to fight a moor who denied the divinity of the saviour. in the council of pennafiel, in 1302, it had been found necessary to prohibit challenges being sent to bishops or canons; a prohibition renewed in 1669. in portugal duelling was punished by transportation to africa, with confiscation of goods and chattels; and in that country duels to the present day are very rare, and considered a deadly sin. subjects of dispute are carried before a competent tribunal, and the complaint 334 is called querelar; when the parties are ordered to enter into security for keeping the peace, and are bound bene vivere. not long since, when the portuguese court was at brazil, the count linhares had offended in a ball-room the marquis de lavradro, who sent him a message; but linhares having fallen from his horse, the offended party felt satisfied and withdrew the challenge. gaston de camara, since count paypa, had offended in a sonnet castello branco, son of the marquis de bellari: a meeting took place, and the poet was wounded; but such meetings, both in spain and portugal, are very uncommon. in the late disastrous conflict between carlists and christinos, the challenge sent by general o’donnel to the christino brigadier lopez was considered a singular event. the chivalric bombast of this challenge is worthy of record, and highly illustrative of the spanish character:—

“the cavalry of don carlos ardently desires to measure itself with that of donna christina; but, as the results of battles are uncertain from position, or from the number of the combatants, let us, chiefs of party, imitate the knights of old, and select an equal number of warriors who, sword in hand, will decide the question by their sheer valour. on my side, i swear upon my honour not to bring into the field a greater number of combatants than shall be agreed upon. trusting 335 that my enemy will follow my example, i salute all my numerous friends and former companions who now serve in the christino ranks, wishing them every prosperity, excepting in battle, for i know no enemy save those i meet in the field.”

this challenge was accepted by the christino general, who issued the following order of the day:—“i merely wait to know the appointed ground, to lead you into the conflict. death is a noble reward to all those who feel spanish blood flowing in their veins; and you will find your commander at the head of this romantic duel.” it is needless to add, that this gasconading did not even end in smoke.

notwithstanding the barbarous nature of duels, they are rarely resorted to by ferocious nations, who prefer the more certain revenge that assassination affords. there is a civilization and an honourable bearing in a duel, foreign to the spanish character; and it cannot be expected that men capable of murdering women can meet a brave adversary in single combat, governed by the laws of honour. what can be thought of a nation whose generals issued orders to put any surgeon to death who had been known to dress the wounds of an enemy? it is painful to reflect, that after the events of june in 1833, the french police issued an order nearly as barbarous to all medical men, to send in the 336 names of the wounded they had been called upon to dress. frederic the great had also issued an edict in which surgeons were prohibited from attending any person wounded in a duel!