in discussing the method of transforming flour into bread it will be convenient to begin by describing in detail one general method. the modifications used for obtaining bread of different kinds, and for dealing with flours of different qualities will be shortly discussed later when they can be more readily understood.

bread may be defined as the product of cooking or baking a mixture of flour, water, and salt, which is made porous by the addition of yeast. it is understood to contain no other substances than these—flour, salt, water and yeast.

in the ordinary process the first step is to weigh out the flour which it is proposed to bake. this is then transferred to a vessel which in a commercial bakery is usually a large wooden trough, in a private house an earthenware bowl. the necessary amount of yeast is next weighed out and mixed with water. nowadays compressed or german yeast is almost always used at the rate of 1 to 2 lbs. per sack or 280 lbs. of flour. for smaller quantities of flour relatively more yeast is needed, for instance 2 ozs. per stone. formerly brewers’ yeast or barm was used, but its use has practically ceased because it 92 is difficult to obtain of standard strength. some people who profess to be connoisseurs of bread still prefer it because as they say it gives a better flavour to the bread. the water with which the yeast is mixed is warmed so as to make the yeast more active. the flour is then heaped up at one end of the vessel in which the mixing is to take place, and salt at the rate of 2 to 5 lbs. per sack is thoroughly stirred into it. a hollow is then made in the heap of flour into which the mixture of yeast and water is poured. 93 more warm water is added so that enough water in all may be present to convert all, or nearly all, the flour into dough of the required consistency. when dealing with a flour with which he is familiar the baker knows by experience how much water he requires per sack. in the case of an unaccustomed brand of flour he determines the amount by a preliminary trial with a small quantity (figs. 16 and 17). flour from the heap is then stirred into the water 94 until the whole of the flour is converted into a stiff paste or dough as it is called. by this method a little dry flour will always separate the dough from the sides of the vessel and this will prevent the dough from sticking to the vessel and the hands. the dough is then thoroughly worked or kneaded so as to ensure the intimate mixture of the ingredients. the vessel is then covered to keep the dough warm. in private houses this is ensured by placing the vessel near the fire. in bakeries the room in which the mixing is conducted is usually kept at a suitable temperature. the yeast cells which are thoroughly incorporated in the dough, find themselves in possession of all they require to enable them to grow. the presence of water keeps them moist, and dissolves from the flour for their use sugar and salts: the dough is kept warm as above explained. under these conditions active fermentation takes place with the formation of alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. the alcohol is of no particular consequence in bread making, the small amount formed is probably expelled from the bread during its stay in the oven. the carbon dioxide, however, plays a most important part. being a gas it occupies a large volume, and its formation throughout the mass of the dough causes the dough to increase greatly in volume. the dough is said by the housewife to rise, by the professional baker to prove.

the process of kneading causes the particles of gluten to absorb water and to adhere to one another, so that the dough may be regarded as being composed of innumerable bubbles each surrounded by a thin film of gluten, in or between which lie the starch grains and other constituents of the flour. each yeast cell as above explained forms a centre for the formation of carbon dioxide gas, which cannot escape at once into the air, and must therefore form a little bubble of gas inside the particular film of gluten which happens to surround it. the expansion of the dough is due to the formation inside it of thousands of these small bubbles. it is to the formation of these bubbles too that the porous honey-combed structure of wheaten bread is due. also since the formation of the bubbles is due to the retention of the carbon dioxide by the gluten films, such a porous structure is impossible in bread made from the flour of grains which do not contain gluten.

the rising of the dough is usually allowed to proceed for several hours. the baker finds by experience how long a fermentation is required to give the best results with the flours he commonly uses. when the proper time has elapsed, the dough is removed from the trough or pan in which it was mixed to a board or table, previously dusted with dry flour to prevent the dough adhering to the board or to the hands. it is then divided into portions of the proper weight to 96 make loaves of the desired size. this process is known technically as scaling. usually 2 lbs. 3 ozs. of dough is allowed for baking a 2 lb. loaf. each piece of dough is now moulded into the proper shape if it is desired to bake what is known as a cottage loaf, or placed in a baking tin if the baker is satisfied with a tinned loaf. in either case the dough is once more kept for some time at a sufficiently warm temperature for the yeast to grow so that the dough may once more be filled with bubbles of carbon dioxide gas. as soon as this second rising or proving has proceeded far enough the loaves are transferred to the oven. here the intense heat causes the bubbles of gas inside the dough to expand so that a sudden increase in the size of the loaf takes place. at the same time the outside of the loaf is hardened and converted into crust.

after remaining in the oven for the requisite time the bread is withdrawn and allowed to cool as quickly as possible, after which it is ready for use or sale.

the method of baking which has been described above is known as the off-hand or straight dough method. it possesses the merit of rapidity and simplicity, but it is said by experts that it does not yield the best quality of bread from certain flours. perhaps the commonest variation is that known as the sponge and dough method, which is carried out as follows. 97 as before, the requisite amount of flour is weighed out into the mixing trough, and a depression made in it for the reception of the water and yeast. these are mixed together in the proper proportions, enough being taken to make a thick cream with about one quarter of the flour. this mixture is now poured into the depression in the flour, and enough of the surrounding flour stirred into it to make a thick cream or sponge as it is called. at the same time a small quantity of salt is added to the mixture. the sponge is allowed to ferment for some hours, being kept warm as in the former method. as soon as the time allowed for the fermentation of the sponge has elapsed, more water is added, so that the whole or nearly the whole of the flour can be worked up into dough. this dough is immediately scaled and moulded into loaves, which after being allowed to prove or rise for some time are baked as before. this method is used for flours which do not yield good bread when they are submitted to long fermentation. in such cases the mellow flours, which will only stand a very short fermentation, are first weighed out into the mixing trough, and a depression made in the mass of flour into which a quantity of strong flour which can be fermented safely for a long time is added. it is this last addition which is mixed up into the sponge to undergo the long preliminary fermentation. the rest of the flour is mixed in after this first 98 fermentation is over, so that it is only subjected to the comparatively slight fermentation which goes on in the final process of proving.

many other modifications are commonly practised locally, their object being for the most part to yield bread which suits the local taste. it will suffice to mention one which has a special interest. in this method the essentially interesting point is the preparation of what is known as a ferment. for this purpose a quantity of potatoes is taken, about a stone to the sack of flour. after peeling and cleaning they are boiled and mashed up with water into a cream. to this a small quantity of yeast is added and the mixture kept warm until fermentation ceases, as shown by the cessation of the production of gas. during this fermentation the yeast increases enormously, so that a very small quantity of yeast suffices to make enough ferment for a sack of flour. the flour is now measured out into the trough, and the ferment and some additional water and salt added so that the whole can be worked up into dough. scaling, moulding, and baking are then conducted as before. this method was in general use years ago when yeast was dear. it has fallen somewhat into disuse in these days of cheap compressed yeast, in fact the use of potatoes nowadays would make the process expensive.

in private houses and in the smaller local bakeries the whole of the processes described above are carried 99 out by hand. during the last few decades many very large companies have been formed to take up the production of bread on the large scale. this has caused almost a revolution of the methods of manipulating flour and dough, and in many cases nowadays almost every process in the bakery is carried out by machinery. in many of the larger bakeries doughing and kneading are carried out by machines, and this applies also to the processes of scaling and moulding. a similar change has taken place too in the construction of ovens. years ago an oven consisted of a cavity in a large block of masonry. wood was burned in the cavity until the walls attained a sufficiently high temperature. the remains of the fuel were then raked out and the bread put in and baked by radiation from the hot walls.

nowadays it is not customary to burn fuel in the oven itself, nor is the fuel always wood or even coal. the fuel is burned in a furnace underneath the oven, and coal or gas is generally used. sometimes however the source of heat is electricity. in all cases it is still recognised that the heat should be radiated from massive solid walls maintained at a high temperature. in the latest type of oven the heat is conducted through the walls by closed iron tubes containing water, which of course at the high temperatures employed becomes superheated steam. it is recognised 100 that the ovens commonly provided in modern private houses, whether heated by the fire of the kitchen range, or by gas, are not capable of baking bread of the best quality, because their walls do not radiate heat to the same degree as the massive walls of a proper bake oven.

it is commonly agreed that bread, in the usual acceptation of the term, should contain nothing but flour, yeast, salt, and water; or if other things are present they should consist only of the products formed by the interaction of these four substances in the process of baking. millers and bakers have, however, found by experience that the addition of certain substances to the flour or to the dough may sometimes enable them substantially to improve the market value of the bread produced by certain flours. the possible good or bad effect of such additions on the public health will be discussed in a later chapter. it may be of interest here to mention some of the substances which are commonly used as flour or bread improvers by millers and bakers, and to discuss the methods by which they effect their so called improvements.

in a former chapter we have discussed the quality of wheat from the miller’s point of view, and during the discussion certain views were enunciated on the subject of strength. it was pointed out that a strong flour was one which would make a large well-shaped 101 loaf, and that the size of the loaf was dependent on the flour being able to provide sugar for the yeast to feed upon right up to the moment when the loaf goes into the oven. this can only occur when the flour contains an active ferment which keeps changing the starch into sugar. that this view is generally accepted in practice is shown by the fact that, when using flours deficient in such ferment, bakers commonly add to the flour, yeast, salt, and water, a quantity of malt extract, the characteristic constituent of which is the sugar producing ferment of the malt. this use of malt extract is now extending to the millers, several of whom have installed in their mills plant for spraying into their flour a strong solution of malt extract. it seems to be agreed by millers and bakers generally that such an addition to a flour which makes small loaves distinctly increases the size of the loaf. there can be no doubt that this effect is produced by the ferment of the malt extract keeping up the supply of sugar, and thus enabling the yeast to maintain the pressure of gas in the dough right up to the moment when it goes into the oven.

the view that the shape of the loaf is due to the effect of salts, and particularly of phosphates, on the coherence of the gluten has also been put to practical use by the millers and the bakers. preparations of phosphates under various fancy names are now on the market, and are bought by bakers for adding to 102 the flour to strengthen the gluten and produce more shapely loaves. a few millers too are beginning to spray solutions of phosphates into their flours with the same object in view, and such additions are said to make material improvements in the shape of the loaf produced by certain weak flours.

these two substances, malt extract and phosphates, are added to the flour with the definite object of improving the strength and thus making larger and more shapely loaves. but there is a second class of substances which are commonly added to flours, not in the mill but in the process of bread making, with the object of replacing yeast. yeast is used in baking in order that it may form gas inside the dough and thus produce a light spongy loaf. exactly the same gas can be readily and cheaply produced by the interaction of a carbonate with an acid. these substances will not react to produce acid as long as they remain dry, but as soon as they are brought into close contact with each other by the presence of water, reaction begins and carbon dioxide gas is formed. these facts are taken advantage of in the manufacture of baking powders and self-rising flours. baking powders commonly consist of ordinary bicarbonate of soda mixed with an acid or an acid salt, such as tartaric acid, cream of tartar, acid phosphate of lime, or acid phosphate of potash. one of these latter acid 103 substances is mixed in proper proportions with the bicarbonate of soda, and the mixture ground up with powdered starch which serves to dilute the chemicals and to keep them dry. a small quantity of the baking powder is mixed with the flour before the water is added to make the dough. the presence of the water causes the acid and the carbonate to give off gas which, as in the case of the gas formed by the growth of yeast, fills the dough with bubbles which expand in the oven and produce light spongy bread. when using baking powders in place of yeast it must not be forgotten that gas formation in most cases begins immediately the water is added, and lasts for a very short time. consequently the dough must be moulded and baked at once or the gas will escape. this is not the case, however, with those powders which are made with cream of tartar, for this substance does not react with the carbonate to any great extent until the dough gets warm in the oven. for some purposes it is customary to use carbonate of ammonia, technically known as volatile, in place of baking powder. this substance is used alone without any addition of acid, because it decomposes when heated and forms gas inside the dough. sometimes too one or other of the baking powders above described are added to the flour by the miller, the product being sold as self-rising flour. such flour will of course lose its property of self-rising if allowed 104 to get damp. occasionally objectionable substances are used in making baking powders of self-rising flours. some baking powders for instance contain alum which is not a desirable addition to any article of human food. baking powders and self-rising flours are far more frequently used by house-wives for making pastry or for other kinds of domestic cookery than for breadmaking.

bread is made on the large scale without the intervention of yeast by the aeration process, which is carried out as follows. a small quantity of malt is allowed to soak in a large quantity of water, and the solution thus obtained is kept warm so that it may ferment. this charges the solution with gas and at the same time produces other substances which are supposed to give the bread a good flavour. such a solution too retains gas much better than pure water. this solution is then mixed with a proper proportion of flour inside a closed vessel, carbon dioxide gas made by the action of acid on a carbonate being pumped into the vessel whilst the mixing is in progress. the mixing is of course effected by mechanical means. as soon as the dough is sufficiently mixed, it is allowed to escape by opening a large tap at the bottom of the mixing vessel. this it does quite readily being forced out by the pressure of gas inside. as it comes out portions of suitable size to make a loaf are cut off. these are at once 105 moulded into loaves and put into the oven. the gas which they contain expands, and light well risen bread is produced. this process is especially suited for wholemeal and other flours containing much offal, which apparently do not give the best results when submitted to the ordinary yeast fermentation.

before closing this chapter it may be of interest to add a short account of the sale of bread. bread is at the present time nominally sold by weight under acts of parliament passed about 80 years ago. that is to say, a seller of bread must provide in his shop scales and weights which will enable him to weigh the loaves he sells. no doubt he would be prepared to do so if requested by a customer, in which case he would probably make up any deficiency in weight which might be found by adding as a makeweight a slice from another loaf. for this purpose it is commonly accepted that the ordinary loaf should weigh two pounds. but in practice this does not occur, for practically the whole of the bread which is sold in this country is sold from the baker’s cart, which delivers bread at the houses of customers, and not over the counter. customers obviously cannot be expected to wait at their doors whilst the man in the cart weighs each loaf he is delivering to them. in actual practice therefore the bread acts, as they are called, are really a dead letter, and bread is sold by the loaf and not by weight, though it must be 106 remembered that the loaf has the reputed weight of two pounds. there are no doubt slight variations from this weight, but for all practical purposes competition nowadays is quite as effective a check on the bona fides of the bread seller as enforced sale by weight would be likely to be. if a baker got the reputation of selling loaves appreciably under weight his custom would very soon be transferred to one of his more scrupulous competitors. altogether it may be concluded that the present unregulated method of sale does not work to the serious disadvantage of the consumers. a little consideration will show that the sale of bread could only be put on a more scientific basis by the exercise of an enormous amount of trouble, and the employment of a very numerous and expensive staff. no doubt the ideally perfect way of regulating the sale of either bread or any other feeding stuff would be to enact that it should be sold by weight, and that the seller should be compelled to state the percentage composition, so that the buyer could calculate the price he was asked to pay per unit of actual foodstuff. now bread normally contains 36 per cent. of water, but this amount varies greatly. a two pound loaf kept in a dry place may easily lose water by evaporation at the rate of more than an ounce a day. the baker usually weighs out 2 lbs. 3 ozs. of dough to make each two pound loaf, and this amount yields a loaf which 107 weighs in most cases fully two pounds soon after it comes out of the oven. but if the weather is hot and dry such a loaf may very well weigh less than two pounds by the time it is delivered to the consumer. in other words the baker cannot have the weight of the loaves he sells under complete control. furthermore the loss in weight when a loaf gets dry by evaporation is due entirely to loss of water, and does not decrease the amount of actual foodstuff in the loaf. to sell bread in loaves guaranteed to contain a definite weight of actual foodstuff might be justified scientifically, but practically it would entail so great an expense for the salaries of the inspectors and analysts required to enforce such a regulation that the idea is quite out of the question. practically, therefore, the situation is that it would be unfair to enforce sale by weight pure and simple for the weight of a loaf varies according to circumstances which are outside the baker’s control, and further because the weight of the loaf is no guarantee of the weight of foodstuff present in it. nor is it possible to enforce sale by guarantee of the weight of foodstuff in the loaf, for to do so would be too troublesome and expensive. finally the keenness of competition in the baking trade may be relied on to keep an efficient check on the interests of the consumer. quite recently an important public authority has published the results of weighing several 108 thousand loaves of bread purchased within its area of administration. the results show that over half the two pound loaves purchased were under weight to the extent of five per cent. on the average. legislation is understood to be suggested as the result of this report, in which case it is to be hoped that account will be taken of the fact that the food value of a loaf depends not only on its weight but also on the percentage of foodstuffs and water which it contains.