opening of 1843—assassination of drummond—the quarterly on the league—scene between peel and cobden—mr. villiers's annual motion—peel's free trade admissions—progress of the league agitation—activity of its press—important accessions—invasion of the county constituencies—the free traders in parliament—disraeli attacks peel—lord john russell's attitude—debate on mr. villiers's motion—mr. goulburn's budget—the sugar duties—defeat of the government—peel obtains a reconsideration of the vote—disraeli's sarcasms—the anti-league league—supposed decline of cobdenism—the session of 1845—the budget—breach between peel and his party—the potato disease—the cabinet council—memorandum of november 6—dissent of peel's colleagues—peel's explanation of his motives—lord stanley's expostulation—announcement in the times—the edinburgh letter—resignation of the ministry—russell fails to form a government—return of peel—parliament meets—debates on the queen's speech—peel's general statement—mr. bright's eulogium—the corn bill passes the commons and the lords—defeat of sir robert peel—some scattered facts of his administration.

the year 1843 opened amid gloom and depression. the newspapers published the fact that the revenue for the quarter ending on the 5th of january, as compared with the corresponding quarter of the previous year, had decreased no less than ￡940,062, occasioned mainly by diminished consumption of articles used by the industrial classes of the community; and the times remarked, "it appears to us very clear, whatever our free trade friends may say, that any alteration which may be made in the corn laws ought not to be made irrespective of financial considerations: we cannot at these times afford to throw away revenue." in the same paper appeared a statement that flour was 30 per cent. dearer in london than in paris. the queen opened parliament on the 2nd of february, and the speech delivered from the throne regretted the diminished receipts from some of the ordinary sources of revenue, and feared that it must, in part, be[506] attributed to the reduced consumption of many articles caused by that depression of the manufacturing industry of the country which had so long prevailed, and which her majesty had so deeply lamented. but it suggested no measure of relief for the people.

a debate which took place shortly afterwards was characterised by a memorable scene. in the month of january, 1843, mr. edward drummond, the private secretary of sir robert peel, had been shot in the street at charing cross, by an assassin, named m'naughten. the unfortunate gentleman died of the wound, and the wildest rumours agitated the town as to the motive which had prompted the deed. many asserted that it was a political one. m'naughten had been seen loitering in whitehall gardens, and had followed his victim from sir robert peel's residence in that locality. it was at once rumoured that the prime minister was the intended victim. m'naughten had come from glasgow, and it was said that when the queen was in scotland sir robert peel invariably rode in the royal carriage, and mr. drummond in sir robert's own carriage. if this were true, it was remarked, the assassin's confidence would have been complete when he saw mr. drummond actually leave the house of sir robert peel. although the assassin was afterwards proved to be insane, the fact, coupled with the political excitement of the time, made a painful impression upon the minds of public men.

in the eyes of the conservatives the league was now the great cause of the political ferment that had spread throughout the land. in the quarterly review for december a long and elaborate indictment had been published against that body, and all who were in any way connected with them, in which it was attempted to show that the means by which the league sought to attain their objects were of the worst kind. the writer of the article hinted that the league's system of levying money for the avowed purpose of forcing parliament to alter the law of the land was criminally punishable. a mr. bailey had stated, at one of the league meetings, that he had heard of a gentleman who, in private company, had said that if one hundred persons cast lots, and the lot should fall upon him, he would take the lot to deprive sir robert peel of life. the teller of this injudicious anecdote added, that "he felt convinced that no such attempt ought to be made under any pretence whatever; but he was persuaded of this, that when sir robert peel went to his grave there would be but few to shed one tear over it." the speaker was a minister of the gospel, and there could be no doubt that he intended his anecdote only as an illustration of the frenzy to which some persons had been wrought by the political circumstances of the time; but this fact circulated by the great tory organs, together with all the most violent and excited passages which could be found in the innumerable speeches delivered at league meetings, and in the pamphlets and other publications of that body, tended to create a vague horror of the leaguers in the minds of that large class who read only writers on that side which accords with their own views.

when the rumours of mr. drummond having been mistaken for sir robert peel were spread abroad, it was impossible for zealous conservatives to forget these things. if the assassin m'naughten was mad, he was certainly mad about politics; one of the first utterances of his insane ravings when captured having been directed against the tories of glasgow. one witness, indeed, swore that on his being asked if he knew the gentleman shot at, m'naughten replied, "it is sir robert peel, is it not?" the minister's life was not considered safe, and for some time two policemen in plain clothes followed him about in the street wherever he went. on the 17th of february, the fifth night of a debate in the commons on the distress of the country, mr. cobden rose to speak, and in the course of his address alluded to an attempt made to identify the members of the anti-corn-law league with a most odious, a most horrible transaction which had lately occurred; but in the conclusion of his speech, he said, "i tell the right honourable gentleman [sir robert peel] that i, for one, care nothing for whigs or tories. i have said that i never will help to bring back the whigs, but i tell him that the whole responsibility of the lamentable and dangerous state of the country rests with him." no outcry at these words, even among the ministerial party, evinced that the house regarded them as overstepping the proper limits of debate. loud cries for mr. bankes, the dorsetshire landowner, who had been attacked in mr. cobden's speech, were the only party sounds uttered, but the prime minister was immediately seen to rise. it has been stated that he was "ill and harassed with public anxieties." he was certainly deeply moved by the loss of his valued and confidential friend, mr. drummond. his countenance, it is said, indicated extreme agitation, while by gesticulating, and violently striking an empty box before him, he succeeded[507] in obtaining the ear of the house. it was then that his audience perceived that the minister regarded mr. cobden as pointing him out for the hand of the assassin.

sir robert peel began by saying, "sir, the honourable gentleman has stated here very emphatically, what he has more than once stated at the conferences of the anti-corn-law league, that he holds me individually responsible for the distress and suffering of the country; that he holds me personally responsible." this was pronounced with great solemnity of manner, and at the word "individually" the premier was interrupted by a loud cheer from the ministerial benches of a very peculiar and emphatic kind. sir robert then continued, "be the consequences of those insinuations what they may, never will i be influenced by menaces to adopt a course which i consider——" but the rest of the sentence was lost in renewed shouts from the ministerial benches. mr. cobden immediately rose and said, "i did not say that i held the right honourable gentleman personally responsible;" but he was interrupted by shouts from the ministerial benches of, "you did, you did!" mingled with cries of "order!" and "chair!" the further remark from mr. cobden, "i have said that i hold the right honourable gentleman responsible by virtue of his office, as the whole context of what i said was sufficient to explain," brought renewed shouts from the same quarter of "no, no," accompanied by great confusion. when sir robert, says a newspaper of the day, gave the signal for this new light, then, and not till then, the sense so obtained burst forth with a frantic yell, which would better have befitted a company of savages who first saw and scented their victim, than a grave and dignified assembly insulted by conduct deemed deserving of condemnation. sir robert afterwards so far recovered from his excitement as to say, "i will not overstate anything. therefore i will not say i am certain the honourable gentleman used the word 'personally';" but the debate created a painful impression, which was increased by an article in the times of the following day, deliberately attempting to connect mr. cobden with the doctrine of assassination. the friends of the anti-corn-law movement, however, immediately held meetings throughout the country, at which they expressed their indignation at the attempt to fix a calumny upon the man whose arguments in favour of free trade in food were unanswered and unanswerable.

mr. villiers's motion was again brought forward on the 9th of may. the debate lasted for five nights, and ended in a division which, though it showed a majority of 256 against inquiry, was encouraging as evidencing an increase in the number of the free traders. the minority numbered 125. the debate was chiefly remarkable for the violence of the monopolist party. sir robert peel said that the subject was exhausted, and nothing new could be adduced. "the motion of mr. villiers was fairly stated and proposed—there was no subterfuge involved in it. but he thought that the principle must be applied generally and universally to every article on which a duty was levied. they could not stand on the single article of corn. by the adoption of the motion they would sound the knell of protection, and they must immediately proceed to apply the principle to practice. this would at once upset the commercial arrangements of the last year. the whole of our colonial system must be swept away without favour and without consideration." a contemporary writer describes the uproar which took place on this occasion as exceeding anything that had been witnessed since the night of the memorable division on the corn bill. the minority, it is said, were aware that the remaining speeches, even if delivered, could not be reported, and for that and other reasons were in their resolves so resolute, that although outvoted in some divisions, the question was just as often removed and seconded. at length mr. ross told lord dungannon, that if he were contented to sit till eight o'clock, he himself, and those who acted with him, would willingly sit till nine; and it was at this stage that sir charles napier slyly suggested that they should divide themselves into three watches, after the fashion of a ship's crew. this arrangement would afford ease to all, excepting the speaker, to whom he was sorry he could not afford the slightest relief. worn out at length by the violence of their exertions, and despairing of victory, the majority yielded.

to the anti-corn-law leaguers there was at least the consolation of finding that scarcely a speech was delivered by the prime minister which did not contain some distinct recognition of the great principles of political economy, showing how completely he had, in reality, embraced those doctrines. on one occasion he remarked, "we have reserved many articles from immediate reduction, in the hope that ere long we may attain that which we consider just and beneficial to all—namely, increased facilities for our exports in return. at the same time, i am bound to say[508] that it is for our interest to buy cheap, whether other countries will buy cheap or no. we have a right to exhaust all means to induce them to do justice; but if they persevere in refusing, the penalty is on us if we do not buy in the cheapest market." several of the most conspicuous followers of sir robert peel also in their speeches recognised the abstract principles of free trade in a way which was ominous for the continuance of the landlords' monopoly. among the most interesting instances of this was that of mr. gladstone, the young statesman who was destined afterwards to play so great a part in carrying forward the reforms of his chief.

the minister still claimed the character of the landowner's friend; and in the house of commons, out of 658 members, 125 was the utmost number that could be considered as free traders. but the progress of the league agitation this year was immense. five years had elapsed since the anti-corn-law association in manchester had put forth its humble appeal for five-shilling subscriptions, and now in one single year ￡50,000 had been given for the objects of the association, and it was resolved to raise a further fund of ￡100,000. mr. bright had been returned for durham in july, and already his touching appeals for justice for the people had struck the ear of the house. like his fellow-labourers, cobden, colonel thompson, george wilson, w. j. fox, m.p., and others, he had been busy in all parts of england, addressing audiences sometimes of 10,000 persons. the league speakers had also visited scotland, and had been everywhere received enthusiastically. the great free trade hall in manchester was finished, and had been the scene of numerous gatherings and free trade banquets, at which 7,000 or 8,000 persons had sometimes sat down together. the metropolis, however, was still behind the great provincial cities in supporting the movement; and the league, therefore, resolved on holding a series of great meetings in drury lane theatre, which was engaged for one night a week during lent. the first of these important meetings was held on the 15th of march, and was attended by so large a number of persons that the pit, boxes, and even the higher gallery were filled immediately upon the opening of the doors. the succeeding meetings were no less crowded and enthusiastic. attempts were made to obstruct these meetings, but without success. the use of drury lane theatre had soon to be relinquished, the earl of glengall and the committee of shareholders having prohibited mr. macready, the lessee, from letting it for political purposes. the league were, in like manner, refused admittance to exeter hall; but they were soon enabled to obtain the use of covent garden theatre, where they quickly prepared for a series of great meetings, which proved to be no less crowded and enthusiastic.

in the report prepared by the league it was stated that during a very considerable portion of the year there were employed in the printing, and making up of the electoral packets of tracts, upwards of 300 persons, while more than 500 other persons were employed in distributing them from house to house among the constituencies. to the parliamentary electors alone of england and scotland there had been distributed in this manner, of tracts and stamped publications, five millions. besides these, there had been a large general distribution among the working classes and others, who are not electors, to the number of 3,600,000. in addition, 426,000 tracts had been stitched up with the monthly magazines and other periodicals, thus making altogether the whole number of tracts and stamped publications issued by the council during the year to amount to upwards of nine millions, or in weight more than one hundred tons. the distribution had been made in twenty-four counties containing about 237,000 electors, and in 187 boroughs containing 259,226 electors, making in boroughs and counties together the whole number of electors supplied 496,226. the labours of the lecturers employed during the year had been spread over fifty-nine counties in england, wales, and scotland, and they had delivered about 650 lectures during the year. a large number of meetings had been held during the year in the cities and boroughs, which had been attended by deputations of members of the council, exclusive of the metropolis. one hundred and forty towns had been thus visited, many of them twice and three times; and the report further stated that such had been the feeling existing in all parts of the kingdom that there was scarcely a town which had not urged its claim to be visited by a deputation from the council of the league.

the covent garden meeting became thenceforth an annual feature in the political events of the metropolis, and the effects of this movement in the chief city of the kingdom were seen in the election of mr. pattison, the free trade candidate, for the city of london. another sign of the times was the accession to the ranks of the anti-corn-law league of mr. samuel jones loyd, the wealthy banker, a conspicuous city man, and a great[509] authority on financial matters. this gentleman addressed a letter to the council of the league in october, 1844, in which, after mentioning his reluctance to join a public body, for whose acts he could not be responsible, he said, "the time is now arrived when this must be overruled by other considerations of overwhelming importance. the great question of free trade is now fairly at issue, and the bold, manly, and effectual efforts which have been made by the league in its support command at once my admiration and my concurrence." still more remarkable was the progress of the league in its scheme of converting the agriculturists themselves to their views. the truths which they had always maintained—that the tenant farmer had no real interest in maintaining the corn laws, the agricultural labourer, if possible, less, and that even the landed proprietor, on a far-seeing view of his interest, would be on the same side as themselves—were based upon arguments easily understood by calm reasoners, and were even beginning to make way with these classes themselves. not a few great landowners and noblemen had openly classed themselves among their supporters. foremost among these was earl fitzwilliam, who was one of the most effective speakers at anti-corn-law meetings by the side of mr. cobden and mr. bright. among the noblemen openly supporting their cause were the marquis of westminster, lord kinnaird, earl ducie, the earl of radnor, lord morpeth, and earl spencer.

capt. thomas drummond, under-secretary for ireland.

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but the league did more than attempt to convert the country party. they determined to create a country party of their own. they had already taken up the registration of voters in the[510] boroughs, from which they proceeded, with that practical common sense which had distinguished nearly all their movements, to inquire into the position of the country constituencies, where hitherto the landowners had held undisputed sway. the scheme which resulted from this incursion into the dominions of the enemy was developed by mr. cobden at a meeting in the free trade hall, manchester, on the 24th of october, 1844. the chandos clause in the reform act, giving the tenant-farmers votes for county members, had so strengthened the landlords' influence in the county that opposition at most of the county elections was hopeless. but mr. cobden showed his hearers that the counties were really more vulnerable than the small pocket boroughs. in many of these there was no increase from year to year in the number of voters—no extension of houses. the whole property belonged to a neighbouring noble, and as mr. cobden said, "you could no more touch the votes which he held through the property than you could touch the balance in his banker's hands." but the county constituency might be increased indefinitely, for there it required but a freehold property of the value of forty shillings a year to give a man a vote. this sum had been adopted from an ancient regulation, when money was of far greater value, and land of far less money worth than it was then; but the forty-shilling qualification existed, and was a powerful engine for the creation of voters. up to that time it had had but little effect. the laws of england, but more especially the habits and prejudices of landowners, had always kept the land of the county in so few hands as to present an extraordinary contrast with the condition of things in all other nations of europe. the danger of the forty-shilling clause to aristocratic influence in the county was not perceived, simply because forty-shilling freeholders were rare. but there was no reason why they should be rare. the passion for possessing freehold land was widely spread, and a few facilities offered for purchasing it would soon create a large number of small holders. the chief difficulty in the way of this had hitherto been the great cost of transferring land. owing to the complicated laws of real property, the land, unlike other articles, could only be bought and sold after a minute investigation into the owner's title, which necessitated an historical account of the ownership extending back over many years. all this, however, the league could easily obviate. they could buy land in the lump, register its title once for all, and part it into small pieces for small buyers. "this," remarked mr. cobden, "must be done," and it was done. the conservative party sneered at the manchester man's proposition of serving land over a counter, like calico, by the yard; but the movement soon began to tell upon elections, and to alarm the great landed proprietors.

the year 1844 brought little progress to the free traders in parliament. the members of the house of commons had been elected in 1841, in the teeth of the free trade cry raised by the whigs, and before the league had made its power felt in the elections. unless the minister were compelled to dissolve parliament, they were irremovable for four years longer, and could safely wait. parliament met on the 1st of february. the queen's speech congratulated the country on the improved condition of the trade and manufactures of the country, and the increased demand for labour, from which it was easily prognosticated that no further concessions were intended that session. sir robert peel declared that the government "did not contemplate and had never contemplated any change in the existing corn laws." at recent public meetings influential members of the tory party had openly threatened the minister with expulsion unless he maintained those laws for their benefit—a fact which drew from mr. villiers the remark that he regretted that the prime minister had not "the spirit to turn round upon these people, and show them their utter helplessness without him, their utter inability to administer, without him, the government upon their own system." indeed, it began now to be assumed by all persons favourable to free trade that the minister's opinions were really far in advance of his own party, and that he needed only a favourable opportunity to declare himself openly at variance with their views. the great meetings at covent garden theatre, immediately before the opening of parliament, kept the subject before the public.

on the 11th of march the earl of radnor presented a petition adopted at a great meeting of inhabitants of the county of somerset, which led to a long debate, in the course of which the duke of wellington earnestly recommended their lordships to leave the corn law as it was, and to continue to maintain the system which it was the object of that law to carry into effect; and the duke of richmond declared that he was surprised that any doubt could exist that "the farmers were, almost to a man, hostile to the delusions of free trade." on the following evening mr. cobden[511] brought forward a motion to inquire into the effects of protective duties on the interests of the tenant-farmers and labourers of the country, promising that he would not bring forward a single witness who should not be a tenant-farmer or a landed proprietor; but the debate concluded with a division which negatived the motion by 244 votes to 153.

on the 17th of march, a few nights after mr. cobden's motion, mr. miles brought forward a motion for relief to the agricultural interest in the reduction or remission of taxation. he complained that there had been an importation of wheat during the last thirty-two months seven or eight times greater in amount than in the thirty-six months immediately subsequent to the introduction of the corn law of 1828. the abundance of meat in leadenhall, smithfield, and newgate markets, through the importation of foreign cattle, was also made a subject of reproach against the ministry, and he told the house, as the spokesman of the agricultural party, "that they had no confidence in the measures which the government proposed." they thought that anything would be better than their present position. they saw that the tariff which was passed three years ago was now going to be revised again, and that the shield of protection which was thrown over some of the productions of their industry was about to be removed still farther from them. in such circumstances they could not refrain from asking themselves what there was to prevent the corn laws from going next? mr. disraeli then, in a strain of sarcasm which is stated to have elicited cheers and laughter from the house, assailed the consistency of the premier, and the tone in which he rebuked the mutinous and rebellious members of his party. he believed, he said, protection to be in the same condition now as protestantism had been in 1828, and he, who honoured genius, would rather see the abolition of all protection proposed by mr. cobden than by any right honourable gentleman or by any noble lord on either side of the house. it might be necessary, before such an abolition was accomplished, for the premier to dissolve the parliament for the benefit of the party which he had betrayed, and to appeal to the country, which universally mistrusted him. his solemn and deliberate conviction was that a conservative government was an organised hypocrisy.

progress was again shown in a speech of lord john russell in the debate on the condition of the people on the 26th of may. still clinging to his idea of a fixed duty, he said, "if i had a proposition to make, it would not be the 8s. duty which was proposed in 1841." an exclamation of "how much, then?" from sir james graham drew forth the further remark—"no one, i suppose, would propose any duty that would be less than 4s.; and 4s., 5s., or 6s., if i had a proposition to make, would be the duty that i should propose." the awkward anomalies of sir robert peel's position were the frequent subject of the attacks of his enemies at this time; but the country felt that there was a littleness in the whig leader's paltry and vacillating style of dealing with a great question, beside which, at least, the position of the minister exhibited a favourable contrast.

mr. villiers's annual motion, brought forward on the 25th of june, was scarcely more successful than that of mr. cobden. lord john russell still harped upon his fixed idea of a fixed duty. in his view the country suffered not from the corn law, but only from the form in which it was administered. he said he was not prepared to say either that the corn law should be at once abolished, or that the existing law should be maintained. while such was the feeble policy of the leader of that whig party which had set up a claim to a sort of monopoly of free trade principles, it was no wonder that the country began to look for relief to the minister who had introduced the tariff of 1842; but sir robert peel as yet moved too slowly to rouse the enthusiasm in his favour of the anti-corn-law league. "there were not," he remarked, "ten reflecting men out of the anti-corn-law league, who did not believe that a sudden withdrawal of protection, whether it were given to domestic or colonial produce, would cause great confusion and embarrassment. in the artificial state of society in which we lived we could not act on mere abstract philosophical maxims, which, isolated, he could not contest; they must look to the circumstances under which we have grown up, and the interests involved. ireland, dependent on england for a market for her agricultural produce, was a case in point. he was not prepared to alter the corn law of 1842, and did not contemplate it. seeing that lord john russell had avowed himself a consistent friend to protection, and was opposed to total repeal, he thought he was somewhat squeamish in flying from his difficulty, and declining to vote against the motion. as to the corn law, the government did not intend to alter it, or diminish the amount of protection afforded to agriculture." on the division the numbers for the motion were[512] 124, and against it, 330. on the whole, the cause of free trade made but small progress in parliament in this year, though out of doors the agitation was carried on with ever-increasing vigour. as regards mr. villiers's motion, the progress made was shown principally in the decrease of the majority against it. in 1842, when he first put the question of total repeal on issue before the house, he had 92 votes, and 395 against him; in 1843 he had 125 votes, and 381 against him; in 1844, 124 votes, and 330 against him.

mr. goulburn's financial statement was made on the 8th of may, 1844. it comprised some small reductions of taxation, and the foretaste of an important modification of the sugar duties. as a money account it was encouraging, and showed some progress in diminishing the disastrous effects of whig finance. the past financial year had witnessed a gross surplus of revenue over expenditure of more than ￡4,000,000; or, after paying the deficiency of the previous year, ￡2,400,000; and after making other deductions there was, for the first time for many years, an available surplus, amounting to ￡1,400,000. the anticipated good effects of relieving industry from burdensome taxes had been more than realised. the estimate of the revenue had actually been exceeded by ￡2,700,000. the budget, therefore, fully justified the policy of 1842; but the chancellor of the exchequer ventured only on a small and timid extension of the principles then laid down, with the reduction or abolition of duty on flint-glass, currants, wool, and some other minor matters. the abolition of the wool duty provoked new hostility to the impolitic duty on cotton. the concession to free trade principles was small; but the movement was kept up, and there was at least no sign of reaction.

although announced with the budget, the proposed change in the sugar duties formed a separate and more momentous question. at that time, strictly foreign sugar was virtually prohibited by the excessive differential duties—british plantation sugar paying a duty of 25s. 3d. per cwt., foreign, of 66s. 2d. when the whig administration had proposed to diminish this enormous difference, the tories had pleaded the injustice to the west india landlords of taking away their slaves, and then exposing them to competition with countries still possessing slave labour. the question had thus become one of party. the whigs were pledged to consult the interests of the british consumer; the tories to protect the west indies; and beating the whigs on this very point, the tories had turned them out of office. the british consumer had, however, happily some voice in the elections, and the problem was now to conciliate him without a glaring breach of consistency. accordingly, the tax on our colonial sugar was to be left untouched, as was the tax on foreign sugar, the growth of slave countries; but henceforth it was proposed that the duty on foreign sugar, the produce of free labour, should pay only 10s. more than colonial. thus was the first great blow struck at the protective sugar duties, and at that west indian party which had so long prevailed in parliament over the interests of the people. but the battle had yet to be fought.

the west india interest in the city held great meetings, and instructed their parliamentary representatives for the coming contest. the free traders argued that the government proposition was simply that the west india proprietors should receive 10s. per cwt. more for the sugar they sent here than the growers in any other part of the world could get. this was equivalent to a tax of ￡2,000,000 upon the people of britain, because the west india landlords were alleged to be in distress, and could not cultivate their estates. it was, indeed, the old question of protection for the landed interest on the ground of peculiar burdens. the white population of the west indies amounted only to about a tenth of the whole; and it was admitted that the free coloured people, forming the bulk of the community, had no interest in the proposed monopoly. moreover, it had been shown by repeated experiment that these differential duties always defeated their own objects. the slave-grown sugar was simply exported first to the free country, and then to britain—the british people paying in the enhanced cost of the article all the cost of this circuitous mode of supply.

the opposition, however, was powerful. when mr. goulburn brought forward his resolution by which sugar certified to be the growth of china, manila, java, or other countries where no slave labour was employed, should be admitted at a duty of 34s., the colonial duty being 24s., the danger of the position of the ministers was soon perceived. lord john russell proposed an amendment in favour of admitting all foreign sugars at 34s., a proposal which, though calculated to maintain the price of sugar at a higher point than the government proposition, was less distasteful to the free traders, as abolishing the differential principle. this amendment was rejected by a majority of only 69. on the 14th of june the government bill came on for a third reading, and[513] the contest then began in earnest. mr. miles, the representative of the west india party, moved an amendment proposing a reduction of the duty on colonial sugar to 20s., instead of 24s., and the raising of the duties on foreign to 30s. and 34s. the free trade party were not entrapped by this offer of a reduction of 4s. on colonial sugar. they saw that mr. miles's amendment would only establish a differential duty of 14s. instead of 10s., the difference going to the west india planters. they now, moreover, at least hoped more from sir robert peel than from any minister likely to succeed him. mr. cobden and the league party therefore supported the government; but so powerful was the combination against them that the division, which took place on the 14th of june, left ministers in a minority of 20.

free trade hall, manchester. (from a photograph by frith and co., reigate.)

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the events that followed form part of the general history of that time. the government well knew that they were more popular in the country than their opponents. in the few days that succeeded, during which men were doubtful if they would resign, the minister had had time to feel the power of that popularity, and the value of the support of the free trade party. to satisfy the selfish expectations of the more bigoted of his own supporters must have seemed to him more and more helpless. to break with them, and to look elsewhere for the support which their vindictiveness would inevitably render necessary—to become less a leader of a class, and more a statesman seeking the true foundations of power in a steady regard to the welfare of the great bulk of the community—were ideas naturally present to the minister's mind. when he met parliament again to announce the determination of the government to ask the house to reconsider its decision, his tone was observed to be more bitter than before. his allusions to the defections of his own followers were significant; but they plainly indicated that his course was taken. "we cannot conceal from ourselves," he said, "that in respect to some of the measures we have proposed, and which have been supported, they have not met with that cordial assent and agreement from those for whose character and opinions we entertain the[514] highest and sincerest respect. but i am bound to say, speaking here of them with perfect respect, that we cannot invite their co-operation and support upon the present occasion by holding out expectations that we shall take a middle or other course with regard to those measures which we believe to be best for the interests of the country, and consistent with justice." this modest but firm defiance of the ultra-protectionist party was not lost upon the free traders in the house; neither were the minister's further remarks—"we have thought it desirable to relax the system of protection, and admit into competition with articles of the domestic produce of this country articles from foreign lands. we have attempted to counsel the enforcement of principles which we believe to be founded in truth, and with every regard for existing institutions, and with every precaution to prevent embarrassment and undue alarm."

it was on this occasion that mr. disraeli, rising from the benches filled with the ordinary supporters of the government, delivered one of those bitter and sarcastic diatribes which thenceforward proved so effective in arousing the revengeful feelings of those of the party who believed their interests to have been betrayed in deference to the league. "i remember," he said, "in 1841 the right hon. baronet used these words: he said, 'i have never joined in the anti-slavery cry, and now i will not join in the cry of cheap sugar.' two years have elapsed, and the right hon. gentleman has joined in the anti-slavery cry, and has adopted the cry of cheap sugar. but," he continued, appealing to the rebellious supporters of the government, whom the minister had just defied, "it seems that the right hon. baronet's horror of slavery extends to every place except the benches behind him. there the gang is still assembled, and there the thong of the whip still resounds. the right hon. gentleman," he added, "came into power upon the strength of our votes, but he would rely for the permanence of his ministry upon his political opponents. he may be right—he may even be to a certain degree successful in pursuing the line of conduct which he has adopted, menacing his friends, and cringing to his opponents; but i, for one, am disposed to look upon it as a success neither tending to the honour of the house nor to his own credit. i therefore must be excused if i declare my determination to give my vote upon this occasion as i did in the former instance; and as i do not follow the example of the hon. and gallant member near me (sir h. douglas), it will not subject me to the imputation of having voted on the former occasion without thought or purpose." the appeal of the ministers, however, was, fortunately for the free trade movement, for a time successful. the government were reinstated by a vote of 255 to 233, in a house in which both parties had evidently done their utmost.

the party which, under the guidance of mr. disraeli, lord stanley, and lord george bentinck, was destined to present so formidable an opposition to the minister's policy, and to render his labours in the interests of the people so full of pain and anxiety, as yet only marked its existence by murmurs along the conservative benches. as usual, the somewhat revived prosperity of the country was the chief pretext for resisting change. people with this view did not see the danger of opposing reforms until a sudden storm compelled the legislature to face them with mischievous haste. it had again and again been shown that the evils of the old system of restrictions lay chiefly in the fact that they led to violent fluctuations in the circumstances of the people. nothing, therefore, could be more certain than that, even had the prosperity been tenfold greater, one of those alternations of depression which brought so much misery to the people would not be long in making its appearance. the monopolist party, however, seldom looked beyond the day or the hour. there had been rick-burning in the country, and an agricultural labourer, named joseph lankester, had declared that his object in committing this crime was to raise the price of wheat, and so bring about those high wages which the political farmers and landlords were always saying came from good prices in the corn market. the protectionist lords declared, nevertheless, that the anti-corn-law league, with their mischievous agitation, their models of the big and the little loaf, their lectures and meetings, their music and banners, their poisonous tracts and pamphlets, were at the bottom of these disturbances. in the towns, however, political agitation was comparatively silent. to some agriculturists it appeared a fair compromise to maintain the protective laws in consideration of their being content to put up with the low prices of the day. any way, the dreaded league seemed to them to be checked.

the landowners, headed by the duke of richmond, had established an anti-league league, for counteracting the manchester men with their own weapons—an association which the satirists of the day represented by a slightly modified picture[515] from the fable of the frog and the bull. to those, however, who read only the tracts of the anti-league league, it doubtless appeared that the torrent was to some degree arrested. it began to be asserted that the league was extinct, that the country was sick of its incessant agitation, and that mr. cobden and mr. bright were about to "back out." these, however, were not the views of the league men. the lists of voters, the freehold land scheme, and the gathering in of that ￡100,000 fund which was now fast approaching completion, furnished them with abundant employment, and their campaign was carried on with a success which gave sure promise of the final capture of the stronghold of the enemy.

the parliamentary session for 1845 was opened by the queen in person on the 4th of february. at a meeting a few days earlier, mr. cobden had warned his hearers that no change in the corn laws could be expected from sir robert peel so long as the ministry could avail themselves of the old excuse, the revived prosperity of manufactures and commerce. "ours," he had said, "is a very simple proposition. we say to the right honourable baronet, 'abolish the monopolies which go to enrich that majority which placed you in power and keeps you there.' we know he will not attempt it; but we are quite certain he will make great professions of being a free trader, notwithstanding."

the budget was brought forward on the 13th of february. it proposed to continue the income tax, which experience had shown to afford a means of supplying the place of taxes repealed, until such time as the revenue should recover itself. the minister then unfolded his scheme, which formed no unworthy complement to his great budget of 1842. it proposed a reduction in the sugar duties, which could not be calculated at less than ￡1,300,000, and was expected to lower the price to the consumer by about 1-1/4d. a pound. the minister then proceeded to refer to a list of articles, 430 in number, which yielded but trifling amounts of revenue, and many of which were raw materials used in the various manufactures of the country, including silk, hemp, flax, and yarn or thread (except worsted yarn), all woods used in cabinet-making, animal and vegetable oils, iron and zinc in the first stages, ores and minerals (except copper ore, to which the last act was still to apply), dye stuffs of all kinds, and all drugs, with very few exceptions; on the whole of these articles he proposed to repeal the duties altogether, not even leaving a nominal rate for registration, but retaining the power of examination. the timber duties generally he proposed to continue as they were, with the one exception of staves, which, as the raw material of the extensive manufacture of casks, he proposed to include with the 430 articles, and to take off the duty altogether. on these articles the loss amounted to ￡320,000. the next and most important relief in the whole proposition was the article of cotton wool, on which the minister proposed also to reduce the duty altogether, and on which he estimated the loss at ￡680,000; and these constituted the whole of the proposed reductions of the import duties—that is, sugar, cotton wool, and the numerous small articles in the tariff. the next items of reduction proposed were the few remaining duties on our exports, such as china-stone, and other trifling things, but including the most important article of coals, on which the duty had been placed by the government, and at the result of which sir robert peel candidly avowed his disappointment. the duties he estimated at ￡118,000. he then passed on to the excise duties, among which he had selected two items of great importance for entire repeal—the auction duty and the glass duties. by a repeal of the auction duty he estimated a loss of ￡300,000; but as he proposed, at the same time, to increase the auctioneer's licence uniformly from ￡5 to ￡15 (making one licence answer for all purposes, whereas, at that time, several licences were often necessary to the same party) he expected from 4,000 auctioneers an increased income, so as to reduce this loss to ￡250,000. on the important article of glass he gave up ￡642,000. these constituted the whole of his proposals; and the surplus of ￡2,409,000 was thus proposed to be disposed of:—estimated loss on sugar, ￡1,300,000; duty on cotton repealed, ￡680,000; ditto on 430 articles in tariff, ￡320,000; export duty on coal, ￡118,000; auction duty, ￡250,000; glass, ￡642,000. total, ￡3,310,000.

the budget excited extraordinary interest throughout the country; but the proposed sugar duties were, in the eyes of the free traders, objectionable, as maintaining the differential rates in favour of the west indian landlords. though well received on the whole, it was impossible not to see in the budget traces of the anomalous position of the minister. one newspaper described his measures as combining the most glaring inconsistencies that ever disfigured the policy of any minister, and arranged in parallel columns illustrations of its assertion. sir robert peel was charged with proposing at the same time a tariff whose[516] express object was declared to be to cheapen the necessaries of life and corn, and provision laws whose sole object was to make the chief necessaries of life dear; with professing great concern to relieve trade and commerce, for the sake of which a property tax was proposed, combined with a still greater concern to uphold the rent of land, for the sake of which trade and commerce were loaded with a bread tax; with devising taxes for the mere purpose of revenue; with levying taxes for the mere purpose of protection; with repealing the duty on slave-grown cotton, while imposing prohibitory duties on slave-grown sugar; with encouraging brazilian coffee and cotton, while refusing brazilian sugar; and with admitting cheap slave-grown sugar to be refined in britain, and sold to continental nations, while forbidding the selfsame cheap sugar to our own working people. still, there was progress. the corn law was untouched, but statesmen of all parties had spoken despairingly of its continuance.

the gulf between the minister and the landowners was widening. the debates on the budget, and on mr. cobden's motion for inquiry into the alleged agricultural distress, had drawn out more bitter speeches from mr. disraeli, and served still further to mark the distinction between the minister and a large section of his old followers. but one of the most significant signs of the time was the increasing tendency to recognise the talents and singleness of purpose of the anti-corn-law leaguers. it became almost fashionable to compliment the ability of mr. cobden. it was almost forgotten that the minister had once carried with him the whole house in making an excited charge against that gentleman of marking him out for assassination. the bitterness of the ultra-protectionists was certainly unabated; but neither the quarterly nor any other review now classed the manchester men with rick-burners and assassins, or called upon the government to indict them for sedition.

the debate on mr. villiers's annual motion, on june 10, produced still further evidences of the decline of protectionist principles. on that occasion sir james graham, who was currently believed to be better acquainted with the feelings of the premier than any other of the ministers, said, "he would not deny that it was his opinion, that by a gradual and cautious policy it was expedient to bring our system of corn laws into a nearer approximation to those wholesome principles which governed legislation with respect to other industrial departments. but it was his conviction that suddenly and at once to throw open the trade in corn would be inconsistent with the well-being of the community, and would give such a shock to the agricultural interest as would throw many other interests into a state of convulsion. the object of every government, without distinction of party, for the last twenty years, had been to substitute protecting duties for prohibitory duties, and to reduce gradually protecting duties, where it had them to deal with. he approved of this as a safe principle, and showed that it was the keystone of the policy of sir robert peel.... if they could show him that free trade with open ports would produce a more abundant supply to the labourer, they would make him [sir james] a convert to the doctrine of free trade in corn. he confessed that he placed no value on the fixed duty of four shillings lately proposed; it would be of no avail as a protection, whilst it would be liable to all the obloquy of a protecting duty; and he therefore thought that if they got rid of the present corn law, they had better assent to a total repeal." sir robert peel spoke more cautiously; but he began by striking away a favourite maxim of his party, in observing that experience proved that the high price of corn was not accompanied by a high rate of wages, and that wages did not vary with the price of corn. he said that he "must proceed, in pursuance of his own policy, to reconcile the gradual approach of our legislation to sound principle on this subject, with the interests which had grown up under a different state of things;" but he admitted that it would be "impossible to maintain any law on the ground that it was intended to keep up rents."

such was the position of affairs when parliament was prorogued on the 9th of august. the peel ministry appeared to be as firmly seated as any combination then possible was likely to be, and the agriculturists' monopoly seemed safe at least for another year; but the government had already received warnings of a coming storm. the weather had been for some time wet and cold, but as yet a general failure of the wheat crop was not anticipated. the trouble approached from a quarter in which no one had looked for it. early in the month of august sir robert peel had received an account of an extraordinary appearance in the potato crop in the isle of wight. on the 11th of august sir james graham received a letter from a great potato salesman, indicating that the same mysterious signs were observable throughout the south-eastern counties, and he hastened to communicate the facts to his colleague. these isolated[517] observations soon became confirmed from numerous quarters, and the account was everywhere the same. first a brown spot was observable on the skin of the potato; then the spot became black, the leaves and flowers of whole fields grew shrivelled, black, and putrid; and the crops, wherever the plague appeared, were almost entirely destroyed. from ireland the most alarming accounts were received, and the newspapers were quickly filled with details of the progress of the "potato disease." it began to be asked what would be done with the unemployed multitudes in that country, whose stock of provisions for the next ten months was gone?

charles pelham villiers.

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the government at once sent dr. lindley and dr. playfair, two men of science, to ireland, in the hope that they might be able to suggest remedies for staying the progress of the disease, or preserve that portion of the crop which was still untainted; and the consular agents in different parts of europe and of america were directed to make inquiries and endeavour to obtain a supply of sound potatoes for seed; indeed, the seed question was even more important than that more immediately pressing one, of how the people were to be fed. in addition to this, early in october, they secretly gave orders for the purchase abroad of ￡100,000 worth of indian corn, to be conveyed to irish ports for distribution among the people. these measures, however, proved of little avail, and meanwhile it grew evident that in a great portion of the united kingdom a famine was inevitable, which could not fail to influence the price of provisions of all kinds elsewhere. during this time it became known that the harvest, about which opinions had fluctuated so much, would be[518] everywhere deficient. the friends of sir robert peel in the cabinet who shared his free trade tendencies knew then how impossible it was that the already tottering system of the corn laws could be any longer maintained. the ministers had scarcely reached the country seats in which they looked for repose after the labours of the session, ere the cry of "open the ports!" was raised throughout the kingdom; but except three, none of them took his view of the gravity of the crisis. all knew that the ports once open, public opinion would probably for ever prevent the reimposition of the duties, and the majority of the cabinet for a time still adhered to their protectionist principles.

the magnitude of the interests at stake, the difficulty of estimating the real character and extent of the threatened evil, and the alarming consequences that must ensue if the worst fears should be realised, rendered immediate action necessary. a cabinet council was held on the 31st of october. from what passed on that occasion, says sir robert peel, in the account which he has left of these events, "it was easy to foresee that there was little prospect of a common accord as to the measures to be adopted." on the 5th of november he apprised her majesty of the probability of serious differences of opinion. at the adjourned meeting of the cabinet, on the 6th of november, he submitted certain proposals for the consideration of his colleagues, which he has recorded in the following outline of these events:—

cabinet memorandum, november 6.

"to issue forthwith an order in council remitting the duty on grain in bond to one shilling, and opening the ports for the admission of all species of grain at a smaller rate of duty until a day named in the order.

"to call parliament together on the 27th instant, to ask for indemnity and a sanction of the order by law.

"to propose to parliament no other measure than that during the sitting before christmas. to declare an intention of submitting to parliament immediately after the recess a modification of the existing law, but to decline entering into any details in parliament with regard to such modification.

"such modification to include the admission, at a nominal duty, of indian corn and of british colonial corn."

the cabinet, by a very considerable majority, declined giving its assent to the proposals which the minister thus made to them. they were supported by only three members of the cabinet—the earl of aberdeen, sir james graham, and mr. sidney herbert. the other members of the cabinet, some on the ground of objection to the principle of the measures recommended, others upon the ground that there was not yet sufficient evidence of the necessity for them, withheld their sanction.

"on account of the gravity of the question," says sir robert peel, "and the smallness of the minority assenting to my views, i might perhaps have been justified in at once relinquishing office; but after mature reflection, considering that the rejection of my proposals was not a peremptory one by all of those who for the present declined to adopt them, that additional information might materially abate the objections of many, and that the dissolution of a government on account of differences on such a matter as that under consideration must cause great excitement in the public mind, i determined to retain office until there should be the opportunity of reconsideration of the whole subject. that opportunity would necessarily recur at the latter end of this current month (november), when it was agreed that the cabinet should again assemble. in determining to retain office for the present, i determined also not to recede from the position which i had taken, and ultimately to resign office if i should find on the reassembling of the cabinet that the opinions i had expressed did not meet with general concurrence. i determined also, in order to guard against the mischievous consequences of failure in such an undertaking, not to attempt the adjustment of the question at issue unless there should be a moral assurance of ultimate success. it was most painful to me to differ from colleagues with whom i had hitherto acted in uninterrupted harmony, for whom i had sincere personal regard, and cordial esteem and respect founded on an intimate knowledge of their motives and conduct in the discharge of their respective duties."

on the 2nd of november the following letter was addressed to the minister by lord stanley, containing an exposition of the grounds on which he dissented from the proposals submitted to the cabinet:—

[secret.] "colonial office, november 2, 1845.

"my dear peel,—i find it difficult to express to you the regret with which i see how widely i differ in opinion with graham and yourself as to the necessity for proposing to parliament a repeal of the corn laws. since the cabinet on saturday i have reflected much and anxiously upon it;[519] but i cannot bring my mind to any other conclusion than that at which i had then arrived. i have thought it best to put down in writing the view of the case which presents itself to me; and when you have read it, i will thank you to send it on to graham, with whom i have had no conversation upon it. i foresee that this question, if you persevere in your present opinion, must break up the government one way or the other; but i shall greatly regret indeed if it should be broken up, not in consequence of our feeling that we had proposed measures which it properly belonged to others to carry, but in consequence of differences of opinion among ourselves."

the purport of these cabinet councils was generally understood by the country; but as yet only the most sanguine anticipated the proposal of sir robert peel, when the times newspaper on the 4th of december announced, apparently from secret information, that it was the intention of the government to repeal the corn laws, and to call parliament together in january for that purpose. the assertion was received with incredulity, not only by the opposition, but by the ministerial journals. one organ of the tory party placarded its office with a bill, headed "atrocious fabrication of the times!" but the latter journal, on the following day, declared that it "adhered to its original announcement." day by day the controversy raged in the newspapers; but the news was too probable not to gain credence. the result was a conviction throughout the country that the times had really obtained information of the government's intentions; but as a matter of fact its information was incorrect, as the cabinet, far from intending to repeal the corn laws, had made up its mind to retire.

meanwhile lord ashley, a staunch upholder of the corn laws, in a letter to his constituents of dorsetshire declared his opinion "that the destiny of the corn laws was fixed," and that it would be wise to consider "how best to break the force of an inevitable blow." mr. bickham and captain estcott, also strong defenders of the landlords' monopoly, published their conviction that the corn laws were no longer tenable; and on the 22nd of november lord john russell, who was at edinburgh, addressed a letter to the electors of the city of london, which was duly circulated throughout the kingdom, and which contained the following remarkable passages:—

"i confess that, on the general subject, my views have, in the course of twenty years, undergone a great alteration. i used to be of opinion that corn was an exception to the general rules of political economy; but observation and experience have convinced me that we ought to abstain from all interference with the supply of food. neither a government nor a legislature can ever regulate the corn markets with the beneficial effects which the entire freedom of sale and purchase are sure of themselves to produce.

"i have for several years endeavoured to obtain a compromise on this subject. the result of resistance to qualified concession must be the same in the present instance as in those i have mentioned. it is no longer worth while to contend for a fixed duty. in 1841 the free trade party would have agreed to a duty of 8s. a quarter on wheat, and after a lapse of years this duty might have been further reduced, and ultimately abolished. but the imposition of any duty, at present, without a provision for its extinction within a short period, would but prolong a contest already sufficiently fruitful of animosity and discontent. the struggle to make bread scarce and dear, when it is clear that part, at least, of the additional price goes to increase rent, is a struggle deeply injurious to an aristocracy which (this quarrel once removed) is strong in property, strong in the construction of our legislature, strong in opinion, strong in ancient associations and the memory of immortal services."

the cabinet met again on the 25th, when sir robert peel informed his colleagues that, in the position of affairs, he could not abstain from advising the immediate suspension, by order in council, of the restrictive law of importation, or the early assembling of parliament for the purpose of proposing a permanent change. lord aberdeen, mr. sidney herbert, and sir james graham supported him. the duke of wellington gave a reluctant adhesion. it then became known that lord stanley had withdrawn from the ministry, and it was believed that the duke of buccleuch intended to follow his example. the majority of the cabinet had decided in favour of a permanent reduction in the sliding scale; but the position of the minister was now too uncertain for him to attempt to carry through his measures. a resignation was the only step which could show the true strength of parties, and determine who would and who would not follow the minister in that course which, if he was to return to power, he had finally resolved to take. on the 5th of december he announced his determination to her majesty, and the public learned that the peel administration was at an end.

[520]

lord john russell was immediately summoned from scotland, and on the 11th arrived at osborne, where he received her majesty's commands to form a government. on the ground that his party were in a minority in the house of commons, lord john russell at first declined the honour presented to him; but on a paper being placed in his hands by the queen, in which sir robert peel promised, in his private capacity, to aid and give every support to the new ministry in settling the question of the corn laws, he undertook the task. there was no amicable feeling between the new and the retiring minister. lord john russell's letter, published a few days before, had excited as much attention for its bitter sarcasm against sir robert peel as for the important change in the whig policy which it announced. lord john russell held communication with the late government, but through sir james graham. it was of importance to him to know more clearly the nature of that support which sir robert peel's memorandum seemed to promise; and he was, therefore, anxious to know what the latter would consider a satisfactory settlement. this proposal, however, to the late minister to become responsible for the measures of his successors was declined. sir james graham communicated to lord john russell the information as to the state of the country on which they acted; but sir robert peel, through his colleague, declined to state the details of the measures which had lately been contemplated. lord john russell then gave, in writing, an outline of the measures which the new cabinet would propose, and invited the opinion of the late minister. sir robert peel, however, still declined to take part in the plans of his opponents; and in a letter to the queen, on the 17th of december, he stated the constitutional grounds on which he considered it improper that any one, not an adviser of the crown, should take a part in the preparation of ministerial measures. lord john russell thereupon immediately proceeded with his negotiations with his own party. it soon, however, appeared that the task he had proposed to himself was beyond his power. earl grey, who had agreed to take the secretaryship of the colonies in the new ministry, suddenly declared that he would not join any administration in which lord palmerston should hold the office of secretary for foreign affairs. this unexpected accident was regarded by lord john russell as decisive. on the 20th of december he communicated the facts to the queen, and begged to be relieved from the task he had undertaken.

on the day before her majesty had desired to see sir robert peel, to bid him farewell; but before he had set out for windsor he had learnt the circumstances of the failure of the whig leader to form a cabinet; and as the result of his interview with the queen he returned to london to resume the reins of government. his position was greatly strengthened. of his late cabinet, lord stanley alone insisted on retiring, his place at the board of trade being filled by mr. gladstone. the baffled whigs and the discontented monopolist party threatened a formidable combination; but, as regarded the ministry itself, the change of policy was effected with far less sacrifice than might have been expected, considering all the circumstances of the case.

parliament reassembled, according to the minister's plan, at the unusually early date of the 22nd of january, 1846. the queen's speech, read by her majesty in person, thus alluded to the topic most prominent in the public mind:—

"i have to lament that, in consequence of the failure of the potato crop in several parts of the united kingdom, there will be a deficient supply of an article of food which forms the chief subsistence of great numbers of my people.

"the disease by which the plant has been affected has prevailed to the greatest extent in ireland.

"i have adopted all such precautions as it was in my power to adopt for the purpose of alleviating the sufferings which may be caused by this calamity; and i shall confidently rely on your co-operation in devising such other means for effecting the same benevolent purpose as may require the sanction of the legislature."

on the subject of the free trade measures generally, the speech continued:—

"i have had great satisfaction in giving my assent to the measures which you have presented to me from time to time, calculated to extend commerce, and to stimulate domestic skill and industry, by the repeal of prohibitory and the relaxation of protective duties.

"the prosperous state of the revenue, the increased demand for labour, and the general improvement which has taken place in the internal condition of the country are strong testimonies in favour of the course you have pursued.

"i recommend you to take into your early consideration whether the principles on which you have acted may not with advantage be yet more extensively applied; and whether it may not be in your power, after a careful review of the existing[521] duties upon many articles, the produce or manufacture of other countries, to make such further reductions and remissions as may tend to ensure the continuance of the great benefits to which i have adverted, and, by enlarging our commercial intercourse, to strengthen the bonds of amity with foreign powers."

maynooth college. (from a photograph by lawrence, dublin.)

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in the house of lords the comments on the ministerial measures were characterised by much bitterness, both against the government and the league; and the duke of richmond asked why mr. cobden was not created a peer, and placed on the treasury bench in the house of lords? in the commons the excitement among the protectionist party was no less manifest; but the crowded house waited impatiently for the minister's explanations. lord francis egerton moved the address, giving the key-note of the ministerial plans by declaring that his own opinions on the corn laws had undergone a complete alteration, and imploring the house to come to "a full, satisfactory, and final settlement of the question." mr. beckett denison, who seconded the motion, declared that experience had "driven" him to the same conclusion.

sir robert peel then rose. he said that the immediate cause which had led to the dissolution of the government was "that great and mysterious calamity which caused a lamentable failure in an article of food on which great numbers of the people in this part of the united kingdom and still larger numbers in the sister kingdom depended mainly for their subsistence." but he added, "i will not assign to that cause too much weight. i will not withhold the homage which is due to the progress of reason, and to truth, by denying that my opinions on the subject of protection have undergone a change." this announcement was received in profound silence from the ministerial benches, but with triumphant cheering from the opposition. protection, he said, was not a labourer's question. high prices did not produce high wages, nor vice versa. in the last three years, with low prices and abundance of food, wages were comparatively high, and labour was in demand. in the three years preceding, with high[522] prices and scarcity, wages were low and employment was scarce. experience thus proved that wages were ruled by abundance of capital and demand for labour, and did not vary with the price of provisions. again, increased freedom of trade was favourable to the prosperity of our commerce. in three scarce and dear years, namely, from 1839 to 1841, our foreign exports fell off from ￡53,000,000 in value to ￡47,000,000. but in three years of reduction of duties and low prices, namely, from 1842 to 1844, the value of our exports rose from ￡47,000,000 to ￡58,000,000. even deducting the amount of the china trade, a similar result was shown. nor was the reduction in the customs duties unfavourable to the revenue. in 1842 there was an estimated loss of ￡1,500,000; in 1843 a smaller one of ￡273,000; but in 1845 there was a reduction at an estimated loss to the revenue of no less than ￡2,500,000. the total amount of the various reductions effected in three years exceeded ￡4,000,000; and many of the duties were totally abolished; the loss, therefore, not being compensated by any increased consumption. had ￡4,000,000 been lost to the revenue? he believed that on the 5th of april next the revenue would be found to be more buoyant than ever. sir robert peel referred to other proofs of prosperity resulting from reduced import duties, and then adverted to his own position, and declared that "he would not hold office on a servile tenure."

the evening of the 27th of january was fixed for the minister's general statement upon the commercial policy of the government. sir robert proposed the reduction of the duty on russian tallow from 3s. 2d. to 1s. 6d.; the abolition of duty on the coarser fabrics of linen, cotton, and woollen, and the reduction on the finer from 20 to 10 per cent.; on french brandy and geneva, a reduction from 22s. 10d. to 15s.; on foreign free-grown muscovada sugar, a reduction from 9s. 4d. to 5s. 10d.; and on clayed 11s. 10d. to 8s.; the admission of indian corn and buckwheat duty free; on butter, the duty to be reduced from 20s. to 10s.; and on cheese, from 10s. to 5s.; the duty on live animals, and fresh and salted meats, pork, and vegetables to be abolished. as to corn, in lieu of the then sliding scale, he proposed that when the average price of wheat was 48s., the duty should fall by 1s. with every 1s. of rise in price, till on reaching 53s. the duty should be a fixed one of 4s.; that this mitigated scale should last for three years, and, by a positive enactment, then disappear on the 1st of february, 1849, leaving for the future only a nominal rate of duty; and that all british colonial wheat and flour should be forthwith admitted at a nominal rate.

the debate was fixed for the 9th of february, on which day it was moved that the house should resolve itself into a committee on the propositions of the government. mr. p. miles moved, as an amendment, that the house should go into committee on that day twelvemonth. the debate occupied twelve nights, in the course of which every species of vituperation was hurled at the minister by the monopolist party. mr. beresford hope denounced him as an apostate. major fitzmaurice thought the farmers might as well die by the manly system of mr. cobden as by the mincemeal interference of the right hon. baronet. another member compared the minister to a counsel who, after taking a fee for advocating one side, took the other when the case came into court. mr. disraeli attacked with great vehemence and bitterness the ministerial proposals, and pointed to the "sad spectacle" of the minister surrounded by a majority who, while they gave him their votes, protested in their speeches against his policy. lord george bentinck, who, in the many years he had hitherto been in parliament, had never before taken part in any debate of importance, surprised the house on the last night of the debate by delivering a long and elaborate speech against the measure, in which he charged the minister with "swindling" and deception—a speech which at once marked him out for one of the leaders of the new opposition.

on the fifth night of the debate sir robert peel rose to speak in defence of his policy against these attacks of his enemies. it was already ten o'clock, and the house listened to him for three hours. he spoke with remarkable warmth and energy, and overpowered his opponents with the unanswerable truths of political economy, and with humorous demonstrations of the fallacies in which the protectionist speakers had indulged. in concluding he said, "this night is to decide between the policy of continued relaxation of restriction, or the return to restraint and prohibition. this night you will select the motto which is to indicate the commercial policy of england. shall it be 'advance!' or 'recede'?" the division took place on the 27th (or rather on the 28th) of february, at twenty minutes to three in the morning, when the numbers for the motion were—337; against it, 240; leaving a majority for going into committee of 97.

this great debate was interrupted by a motion[523] brought on by mr. o'connell, on the impending famine in ireland, which is chiefly memorable for a speech of mr. bright, in which, alluding to sir robert peel's last address to the house, he said, "i watched the right honourable baronet go home last night, and i confess i envied him the ennobling feelings which must have filled his breast after delivering that speech—a speech, i venture to say, more powerful and more to be admired than any speech ever heard in this house within the memory of any man in it." a further eloquent allusion to the minister's newly acquired freedom from the enthralment of the bigoted among his party had a powerful effect upon the house, and it was observed by those who sat near sir robert peel that the tears started to his eyes at this unexpected generosity from his old opponent.

on the 1st of march mr. villiers, adhering to his principle, brought forward the last of those annual motions for immediate repeal which had contributed so powerfully to undermine the corn laws. after a spirited debate of two evenings, in the course of which mr. cobden warned the monopolist party that a protracted resistance would compel the anti-corn-law league to maintain its agitation and concentrate its energies, the house rejected the motion by a majority of 267 to 78.

on the 27th of march, after a powerful address from sir robert peel, the corn importation bill was read a second time—the house, on division, showing a majority for the second reading of 302 to 214. three nights' debate took place on the third reading, in the course of which the protectionists contended with undiminished obstinacy for the maintenance of the landlords' monopoly. the third reading was finally carried at four o'clock in the morning of saturday, may 16th, the numbers being 327 for the bill; against it, 229; leaving a majority for the government of 98.

in the house of lords the second reading was carried on the 28th of may by a majority of 47, and the bill was finally passed on the 25th of june. the attitude of the house was due entirely to the duke of wellington, and his conduct constitutes his best claim to the title of statesman. but the downfall of the peel ministry was inevitable. in a letter to the duke, of the 18th of february, lord stanley had said that, whatever might be the result of the corn bill, the days of the existing government were numbered, and that the confidence of his party in sir robert peel had been so shaken, "that, in spite of his pre-eminent abilities and great services, he could never reunite it under his guidance." the protectionist party found its opportunity in the irish coercion bill, which, introduced by earl st. germans into the house of lords, had slowly passed through its various stages, and appeared in the commons in march. at first the bill was obstructed in order to delay the corn bill, but when that measure became law, whigs and protectionists—who had voted for the second reading of the protection of life bill—resolved to use it as an instrument for the overthrow of peel. they combined, therefore, with the radicals and irish members, and, on the very night on which free trade was passed by the lords, the minister was finally defeated in the commons. he might have dissolved, but his preference was for retirement. the concluding words of his speech will long be remembered. he said: "with reference to honourable gentlemen opposite, i must say, as i say with reference to ourselves, neither of us is the party which is justly entitled to the credit of those measures. there has been a combination of parties, and that combination, and the influence of government, have led to their ultimate success; but the name which ought to be, and will be, associated with the success of those measures, is the name of the man who, acting, i believe, from pure and disinterested motives, has, with untiring energy, by appeals to reason, enforced their necessity with an eloquence the more to be admired because it was unaffected and unadorned—the name which ought to be associated with the success of those measures is the name of richard cobden. sir, i now close the address which it has been my duty to make to the house, thanking them sincerely for the favour with which they have listened to me in performing the last act of my official career. within a few hours, probably, that favour which i have held for the period of five years will be surrendered into the hands of another—without repining—i can say without complaint—with a more lively recollection of the support and confidence i have received than of the opposition which, during a recent period, i have met with. i shall leave office with a name severely censured, i fear, by many who, on public grounds, deeply regret the severance of party ties—deeply regret that severance, not from interest or personal motives, but from the firm conviction that fidelity to party engagements—the existence and maintenance of a great party—constitutes a powerful instrument of government. i shall surrender power severely censured also by others who, from no interested[524] motives, adhere to the principle of protection, considering the maintenance of it to be essential to the welfare and interests of the country. i shall leave a name execrated by every monopolist who, from less honourable motives, clamours for protection because it conduces to his own individual benefit; but it may be that i shall leave a name sometimes remembered with expressions of good-will in the abodes of those whose lot it is to labour, and to earn their daily bread by the sweat of their brow, when they shall recruit their exhausted strength with abundant and untaxed food, the sweeter because it is no longer leavened by the sense of injustice."

before passing to the momentous history of the irish famine we must notice some isolated facts connected with the peel administration, which our connected view of the triumph of free trade has prevented our mentioning under their proper dates. among the many measures of the time which were fiercely discussed, the most complicated were the bank charter act of 1844, and the act dealing with the irish and scottish banks of 1845, whereby the premier placed the whole banking system of the kingdom upon an entirely new basis, in particular by the separation of the issue and banking business of the bank of england, and by the determination of the issues by the amount of bullion in reserve. under the act the bank was at liberty to issue ￡14,000,000 of notes on the security of exchequer bills and the debt due to it from the government, but all issues above this amount were to be based on bullion. still hotter were the passions roused by the maynooth bill, by which ￡30,000 were devoted to the improvement of the college founded at maynooth for the education of roman catholic priests. the language used during the debates by the protestant party has few parallels in the history of the british parliament, and sir robert peel's difficulties were increased by the resignation of mr. gladstone, who found his present support of the bill incompatible with the opinions expressed in his famous essay on church and state. lord aberdeen's foreign policy was completely the reverse of the bold, if hazardous, line adopted by lord palmerston. we have seen how the ashburton mission composed the critical questions at issue with the united states, and in similar fashion a dispute about the oregon boundary, which had been pending for thirty years, was terminated on sound principles of give-and-take by fixing the line at the 49th parallel, while vancouver island was reserved for britain, and the commerce of the columbia was made free. with france our relations were of the most pacific character; so close, indeed, was the entente cordiale that it was a commonplace of tory oratory that m. guizot was foreign minister of england. this was certainly not the case; on the contrary, when the society islands, over which pomare was queen, were forcibly annexed by a roving french admiral, lord aberdeen behaved with very proper spirit, and obtained an indemnity for the missionary pritchard, who had been forcibly placed under arrest. in other respects the friendship of great britain with france continued unimpaired, and there was an interchange of visits between the queen and king louis philippe. it was a sign of a harmony of views between the two nations. unfortunately, owing to a variety of causes, it was not to be of long continuance.