increase of population—nature of its employment—wealth of the nation—the cotton trade—hosiery—the silk and woollen trades—linen goods—minerals and coal—hardware and cutlery—roads—railways—steamboats—the coasting trade—traffic between england and ireland—imports and exports—coffee and tea—the revenue—houses and carriages—real property and savings-banks—popular education—amelioration of criminal legislation—effect of education on crime—the religious bodies—the irvingites—religious leaders in england, scotland, and ireland—progress of science—mathematicians—astronomers: herschel and lord rosse—discoveries in light by brewster and others—irish men of science—mrs. somerville, wheatstone, daguerre, and fox talbot—cavendish and dalton—mechanicians: sir marc brunel—babbage—the fine arts: turner—lawrence and wilkie—haydon—sculpture—architects: soane, barry, and the pugins—historians: mackintosh, lingard, and hallam—napier and gurwood—biographers: moore and lockhart—miscellaneous writers—cheap literature—sir walter scott—lady blessington and lady morgan—mrs. hemans—l. e. l.—pollok—professor wilson ("christopher north")—sheridan knowles and bulwer lytton—manners and morals—almack's—other amusements—english cookery—hyde park—male and female costume.

it is a singular fact, and by no means creditable to the "collective wisdom of the nation," that we have had no authentic enumeration of the english people till the beginning of the nineteenth century. the result, however, of the census of 1800 showed that the population of england had made progress throughout the whole of the preceding century, with the exception of the first ten years, when it seemed to have declined. mr. finlayson, the actuary, drew up a statement founded on the returns of births, marriages, and deaths, giving an estimate of the population at decennial periods, from which it appears that in the year 1700 it was 5,134,516, and in 1800 it was 9,187,176. further, from the decennial census we gather that the population of great britain and ireland, which in 1821 amounted to 21,193,458, was at the enumeration in 1831, 24,306,719; the percentage rate of increase during that interval being 14.68, or very nearly 1? per cent. per annum; and that at the enumeration in 1841 the numbers were 26,916,991, being an increase since 1831 of 2,610,272, or 10·74 per cent., which is very little beyond 1 per cent. per annum. comparing 1841 with 1821, it appears that the increase in the twenty years was in england 33·20, or 1·66 per cent. per annum; wales, 27·06, or 1·35; scotland, 25·16, or 1·25; ireland, 20·50, or 1·02; the united kingdom, 27·06, or 1·35 per cent. per annum. for the purpose of comparison with the corresponding number of years in the nineteenth century, it may be stated that the increase during thirty years, from 1700 to 1800, is computed to have amounted to 1,959,590, or 27

1

10

per cent., while the actual increase in england and wales, in the same space of time between 1801 and 1831, as found by numeration, reached to 5,024,207 souls, or 56

3

5

per cent.[2]

a very instructive point of comparison is the relative increase of different classes of occupations in the decennial period from 1831 to 1841. a comparative return of the commissioners includes males only, ages twenty years and upwards, and exhibits the following results. the number of occupiers and labourers in agriculture had decreased in that period from 1,251,751 to 1,215,264; but the commissioners explained this result by supposing that numerous farm servants had been returned in 1841 as domestic servants instead of as agricultural labourers. persons engaged in commerce, trade, and manufactures had increased from 1,572,292 to 2,039,409 (or 29·7 per cent.); capitalists, bankers, professional, and other educated men, from 216,263 to 286,175 (or 32·3 per cent.); labourers employed in labour not agricultural had decreased from 611,744 to 610,157; other males, twenty years of age, except servants, had increased from 237,337 to 392,211; male servants, twenty years of age and upwards, had increased from 79,737 to 164,384; including, however, as already noticed, many farm servants. for the purpose of instituting a just comparison of the relative increase of particular employments, it must be understood that the total number of male persons, twenty years of age and upwards (exclusive of army, navy, and merchant seamen), had increased in this period of ten years from 3,969,124 to 4,707,600 (or 18·6 per cent.). these[417] people were better fed than their ancestors, and had more work to do. there are three kinds of raw material the consumption of which is particularly indicative of social advancement, as giving employment to the people, adding to their comforts, and increasing the national wealth. these are timber, cotton, and wool. taking all the different kinds of imported timber, there was an increase during the ten years of 37 per cent.; in cotton there was an increase of 61 per cent.; and of sheep and lamb's wool, in addition to the home production, there was an increased importation of more than 78 per cent.

arrival of the mail coach. (see p. 420.)

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the population of great britain had thus rapidly increased, and the condition of the people had improved, notwithstanding heavy taxation, and the burden of an enormous national debt, incurred by one of the most protracted and expensive wars on record, which strained the national energies to the uttermost. how vast, then, must have been the national resources by which all demands were met, leaving the state stronger and wealthier than ever! the extent of these resources is shown in some measure by the amount of our exports. the total declared value of all british and irish produce and manufactures exported in 1831 was ￡37,164,372; in 1841 the value of exports had increased to ￡51,634,623, being at the rate of 38·9 per cent. another example of the greatly increased commerce of the country is afforded by the returns of shipping. in 1831 the number of ships, british and foreign, engaged in the colonial and foreign trades was 20,573, of which the total tonnage amounted to 3,241,927. in 1841 the number of ships had increased to 28,052, and the tonnage to 4,652,376, giving an increase of 43 per cent. in the former year the tonnage employed in our coasting trade amounted to 9,419,681; in the latter it had increased to 11,417,991, showing an increase of 20 per cent. but other indications of national wealth were referred to by the census commissioners of 1841. during the same period the accumulations in savings-banks were very large, and went on increasing. in 1831 there were nearly 500,000 depositors, whose deposits amounted to about ￡14,000,000. in 1841 it was found that both the depositors and the amount deposited had very nearly doubled. from the[418] proceeds of the property tax, which in 1815 was about ￡52,000,000, and in 1842 over ￡82,000,000, an estimate has been formed, in the absence of returns, for the years 1831 and 1841, which sets down the increase of real property during that period as not less than from 20 to 25 per cent. in 1815 the annual profits of trades in england and wales were assessed at ￡35,000,000 in round numbers, and in 1841 they had increased to ￡50,000,000. during the decennial period, 1831-41, legacy duty had been paid upon a capital of about ￡423,000,000, or more than one-half the aggregate amount upon which the duty had been paid in the thirty-four preceding years. the stamp duties, also, upon probates of wills and letters of administration in the united kingdom amounted to upwards of ￡1,000,000, having increased in ten years at the rate of 10 per cent.

the marvellous increase of national wealth in great britain since the reign of george iii. is to be mainly ascribed to two mechanical agencies—the spinning-jenny and the steam-engine; both of which, however, would have failed to produce the results that have been attained if there had not been a boundless supply of cotton from the southern states of america to feed our manufactories with the raw material. the production was estimated in bales, which in 1832 amounted to more than 1,000,000; and in 1839 was upwards of 2,000,000 bales. it appears from mr. woodbury's tables, that in 1834 sixty-eight per cent. of all the cotton produced in the world was shipped for england. in this case the demand, enormous as it was, produced an adequate supply. but this demand could not possibly have existed without the inventions of hargreaves, arkwright, crompton, and cartwright, in the improvement of spinning machinery.

in 1817 the number of power-looms in lancashire was estimated at 2,000, of which only about 1,000 were then in employment, and the wages had fallen below the rate at which goods could be produced by machinery. to the power-loom, therefore, the hand-loom weavers gradually gave way. in 1832 there were 80,000 power-looms in lancashire, employing persons of both sexes and of all ages from nine years upwards, at rates of wages varying from half-a-crown to ten shillings a week. in 1817 the estimated number of persons employed in the spinning of cotton in great britain was 110,763, and the quantity of yarn produced was under 100,000,000 lbs.; in 1853 the yarn spun was nearly 700,000,000 lbs. in 1838 the total number of cotton factories in great britain and ireland was 1,815, of which there were in england and wales, 1,599; in scotland, 192; in ireland, 24. the total number of persons employed in these factories was 206,000, of whom 145,934 were females.

the chief seats of the hosiery manufacture are in the counties of derby, nottingham, and leicester. the number of stocking-frames in england in 1821 was under 30,000, showing an increase in thirty years of only 10,000. mr. felkin gives an estimate for 1833, which states that there were 33,000 frames in england, producing 3,510,000 dozen stockings a year, and consuming 8,137,000 lbs. of cotton yarn, worsted, and silk, valued at ￡814,000; the wages for making them amounting to ￡948,000, and for finishing, ￡229,000; the total value being little short of ￡2,000,000 sterling, and the total value of the materials ￡560,000. the total number of persons employed in the making of stockings was 73,000. the total of fixed capital engaged in the manufacture was ￡385,000, and of floating capital ￡1,050,000. the quantity of cotton hosiery goods made in 1833 was estimated by mr. felkin to have increased more than fifty per cent. in the preceding twenty years.

as to the silk and wool trades, in the ten years preceding 1824 the quantity of raw and thrown silk used by our manufacturers was on an average of 1,882,311 lbs. per annum. in the ten succeeding years the average was nearly double, viz. 95 per cent. higher; and in the sixteen years which ended in 1849 there was an increase of 120 per cent. over the quantity used under the restrictive system. according to the report of the inspectors of factories, there were, in 1835, 231 silk factories in england, six in scotland, and one in ireland. the total number of females thus employed was over 20,000, and the total number of both sexes was about 31,000. the total number of woollen and worsted factories at work in 1835 was returned by the inspectors of factories as being 1,313, showing an increase of ten per cent. in four years. the total number of persons employed in them in 1835 was 71,274, on which there was an increase of twenty per cent. up to 1839. there was a general depression in the price of british wool, in consequence of which a committee of the house of commons was appointed to inquire into the causes. from the evidence which they received, it appeared that the actual number of sheep in england and wales had increased one-fifth since the year 1800, when it was 19,000,000, yielding about 95,000,000 lbs. of wool, or about five pounds[419] for each fleet. it was estimated that the quantity used for manufacturing purposes increased during the first half of the nineteenth century by 115 per cent. yorkshire is the chief seat of the woollen manufacture, and the best proof of its progress, perhaps, is presented in the state of the population, which in the whole of the west riding increased during the first forty years of the century at the rate of 104 per cent. at the census of 1801 it was 563,953, while the census of 1841 showed it to be 1,154,101.

the exports from the united kingdom of all kinds of linen goods, and of flax yarn, amounted, in 1834, to the total declared value of ￡2,579,658. the quantities of irish linen shipped in subsequent years continually increased from 34,500,000 yards in 1800 to 55,000,000 yards in 1835. the manufacture of linen also made great progress in scotland, especially in the town and neighbourhood of dundee. in 1814 the quantity of flax imported into dundee for use in the factories did not exceed 3,000 tons; but in 1831 it was 15,000 tons, and in 1833 it was nearly 18,000 tons, including 3,380 tons of hemp. the quantity of linen sail cloth and bagging into which this material was made, and which was shipped from dundee in the same year, amounted to 60,000,000 yards. the manufacture of linen increased rapidly in england, and the improvement of the quality was wonderful, owing to the perfection of the machinery. the length of a pound of yarn of average fineness in 1814 was only 3,330 yards; but in 1833 a pound of the average quality contained 11,170 yards; the yarn of that quality having during twenty years fallen to one-ninth of the price; the raw material having been reduced in price at the same time about one-half. the english manufacturers embarked to so large an extent in the linen trade that they became large exporters of linen yarn to ireland and also to france.

among the resources of great britain to which she is mainly indebted for her pre-eminence as a manufacturing nation, and without which she would not have been able to make anything like the progress she has made, or to bid defiance to foreign competition as she may always do, are her mines of coal and iron. the total produce of all the british ironworks was found, after a careful estimate, to be, in 1823, 442,066 tons; in 1825, 581,367 tons; in 1828, 653,417, and in 1830, 702,584 tons. in 1844 the quantity reached 1,500,000 tons. the quantity of tin produced in england in 1820 was 3,578 tons; in 1834 it was 4,000 tons. in addition to the quantities used at home, there was a considerable exportation of tin plates, the value of which in 1820 was about ￡161,000, and in 1840 it was more than ￡360,000. the produce of the copper mines in cornwall was much greater than that of the tin mines; for while in 1820 it was only 7,364 tons, it had increased in 1840 to 11,000 tons. the increase during 60 years had been threefold, and the value annually raised exceeded ￡1,000,000 sterling. in the year 1820 the quantity of coals shipped from the port of newcastle was more than 2,000,000 tons. in the year 1840 it had increased to nearly 3,000,000. from the port of sunderland the quantity shipped in 1820 was considerably more than 1,000,000. in 1840 it was 1,300,000 tons. large quantities were also shipped from the port of stockton. the chief coal districts have naturally become the chief manufacturing districts; and as the coal is on the spot, it is impossible to estimate the quantities consumed in working the factories in lancashire, the west riding of yorkshire, nottingham, derby, birmingham, wolverhampton, leicester, coventry, and staffordshire. the town of sheffield alone, it was estimated in 1835, required for manufacturing purposes about 515,000 tons of coals. dr. buckland, in his address to the geological society, in 1840, stated that "the average value of the annual produce of the mines of the british islands amounts to the enormous sum of ￡20,000,000, of which about ￡8,000,000 arises from iron, and ￡9,000,000 from coals."

the progress in the manufacture of hardware is strikingly exhibited by the increase of the population of birmingham. according to the census of 1821, it was 106,722; in 1831 it was 146,986; in 1841 it was 181,116, showing an increase of 80 per cent. in twenty years. the number of houses during the same period was nearly doubled. mr. babbage has given a table, extracted from the books of a highly respectable house in birmingham, showing the reduction in the price of various articles made of iron between 1812 and 1832, which varied from 40 to 80 per cent. the exportation of cutlery from england amounted in 1820 to about 7,000 tons; in 1839 it was 21,000 tons. since 1820 the annual value of the exportations of hardware and cutlery increased about 50 per cent. the town of sheffield is another remarkable instance of the growth of population in consequence of the manufacture of cutlery. in 1821 the population was 65,275; in 1841 it was 111,000. the various manufacturers of cutlery and plated goods, and the conversion of iron into steel, employed in 1835 upwards of[420] 560 furnaces. the declared value of british-made plated ware, jewellery, and watches, exported from the united kingdom in 1827 was ￡169,456; in 1839 it amounted to ￡258,076. the value of machinery shipped to foreign countries in 1831 was only ￡29,000; in 1836 it was ￡166,000; in 1837, ￡280,000; and in 1840, ￡374,000.

the construction of public roads has been greatly improved in the united kingdom by the general adoption of the plan of mr. macadam, who gave his name to the process of substituting stones broken small for the old rough pavement. we read with astonishment of the state of english roads a century ago, of carriages breaking down and sticking fast in deep ruts, and of days passed in a journey which now only occupies as many hours. yet in early times england was better off in this respect than other countries. of all the proofs of social progress which the country now exhibits to such a marvellous extent on every side, there is nothing more decisive or more wonderful than the rapidity with which we have improved and extended our internal communication. from 1818 to 1839 the length of turnpike roads in england and wales was increased by more than 1,000 miles. in the former year england and wales contained paved streets and turnpike roads to the extent of 19,725 miles. scotland also made great progress in the construction of highways from the commencement of the century, and roads were thrown across the wildest districts in ireland. by the improvement of the common roads, and in the construction of vehicles, stage coaches increased their speed from four to ten miles an hour. upon the stamp office returns for 1834 a calculation was based which showed that the extent of travelling on licensed conveyances in that year would be equal to the conveyance of one person for a distance of 597,159,420 miles, or more than six times the distance between the earth and the sun. there were, in 1837, in england, fifty-four mail coaches drawn by four horses each, and forty-nine by two horses each, drawn at an average speed of nine miles an hour. ireland had at the same time thirty four-horse mails, and scotland ten.

bell's "comet." (see p. 421.)

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the number of railway acts passed during the first half of the century was more than 1,000; and the sums which parliament authorised the various companies to expend in the construction of railways from 1826 to 1849 amounted to the enormous total of ￡348,012,188, the yearly average being ￡14,500,508. the liverpool and manchester company was the first that contemplated the conveyance of passengers, which, however, was regarded as a sort of subsidiary traffic, that might produce some ￡20,000 a year, the main reliance being on the conveyance of raw cotton, manufactured goods, coals, and cattle. it need not be remarked how widely the result differed from their anticipation. the receipts from passengers in 1840 amounted to ￡343,910, and it was estimated that the saving to the public on that line[421] alone was nearly a quarter of a million annually. but as yet the system was in its infancy, though the broad gauge had been introduced by brunel in 1833.

sir james mackintosh. (after the portrait by sir t. lawrence, p.r.a.)

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the first steamboat that was worked for hire in britain was the comet, a small vessel with an engine of three horse-power. two years later the elizabeth, of eight horse-power, and the clyde, of fourteen horse-power, were placed upon the river clyde. thus scotland has had the honour of leading the way in this great line of improvement. in 1820 there were but three steam-vessels built and registered in england, four in scotland, and one in ireland. in 1826 there were fifty in england, and twenty-two in scotland, with 9,000 tons burden. the building of steamers proceeded regularly, with an increasing amount of tonnage, till the number rose in 1849 to 1,296 steam-vessels, the aggregate burden of which was 177,310 tons. they were distributed as follows:—in the ports of england, 865 vessels, 103,154 tons; scotland, 166 vessels, 29,206 tons; ireland, 111 vessels, 26,369 tons; the channel islands, 7 vessels, 955 tons; the colonies, 147 vessels, 17,626 tons. a committee of the house of commons was appointed in june, 1837, to inquire into the best means of establishing communication by steam with india by way of the red sea. during the year arrangements were made for the establishment of a regular monthly steam communication between great britain and india by way of the red sea upon the following basis:—"the government undertakes the transmission of the monthly mails between great britain and alexandria at the sole charge of the public; and the east india company undertakes the transmission of these[422] mails between alexandria and bombay, upon condition that one-half of the expense incurred in the purchase and navigation of steam-vessels, and of any other expense incurred in the service, is defrayed by the government, which is to receive the whole money connected with postage of letters between london and bombay." this arrangement was carried out, and a further economy of time was obtained by the overland route to marseilles, instead of transmitting the mails by steam-packets from falmouth through the strait of gibraltar. in this way the journey was shortened to the extent of more than 1,000 miles, the direct distance by marseilles and malta being 5,238 miles, and by way of falmouth, 6,310 miles. this system of conveyance was maintained till 1841, when the government entered into a contract with the peninsular and oriental steam navigation company, which undertook to employ powerful steam-vessels for the carrying of letters and passengers between england and egypt, and between suez, ceylon, madras, and calcutta, towards the expenses of which the east india company undertook to contribute ￡20,000 per annum for five years. after some time there was a further extension of the plan, by which the government engaged to contribute ￡50,000 per annum towards the expense of the line of steam-packets between bombay and suez, ￡115,000 per annum for the service between calcutta and suez, and ￡45,000 for the service between ceylon and hong kong, making a total of ￡210,000 per annum, of which one-third was to be repaid by the east india company. by these arrangements was obtained a regular and safe steam communication twice a month to india, and once a month to china. we may judge of the extent of the intercourse thus carried on by the fact that in 1836 great britain received from calcutta, madras, bombay, and ceylon about 180,000 letters, and sent to those places in the same year nearly 112,000 letters.

the coasting trade carried on by means of steamers underwent an astounding development during the twenty years now under review. in 1820 there were but nine steamers engaged in it, with a tonnage of 500. the next year there were 188 steamers, and thenceforth they went on doubling for several years. in 1830 the number of vessels was nearly 7,000, with a tonnage of more than a million; in 1840 it was upwards of 15,000, with a tonnage of nearly three millions; and in 1849 it was 18,343, with a tonnage of upwards of four millions and a quarter. this account does not include vessels arriving and departing in ballast or with passengers only, which are not required to enter the custom house. steam-vessels were not employed in this kingdom for conveying goods coastwise before 1820, nor in foreign trade, except for the conveyance of passengers, earlier than 1822. in the foreign trade the number of steamers increased gradually from that year till they reached the number of 4,000, with an aggregate tonnage of 800,000.

the effect of steam communication between great britain and ireland was to increase very greatly the traffic of those countries. it has been stated that in order to save the salaries of one or two junior clerks, it was determined to cease keeping any official records of this traffic, with the exception of grain and flour. in the absence of such records we can only arrive at an approximation to the quantity and value of the exports and imports. it was, however, estimated by persons acquainted with the subject, that the quantity of agricultural produce imported into liverpool alone in 1832 was worth four millions and a half sterling; and this produce consisted chiefly of live stock—horses, sheep, and pigs—which could not have been so profitably brought over by sailing vessels. the value of agricultural produce brought to the port of bristol from ireland in the same year was one million sterling. the total value of all sorts of live animals brought from ireland to liverpool in 1837 was ￡3,397,760. one of the most curious items in the traffic is the egg trade. in the course of the year 1832 no less than ￡100,000 was paid for irish eggs in liverpool and bristol alone. looking at the whole traffic between the two islands, we perceive that the amount of tonnage employed in 1849 was 250 per cent. more than it was in 1801. up to 1826 the increase was not so rapid as subsequently, it being then only 62 per cent. on the whole period, showing an annual increase of 2-2/5 per cent., whereas for the quarter of a century that followed, the increase was 188 per cent., the annual increase being 8 per cent.

in 1820 our imports of foreign and colonial merchandise were valued at ￡32,000,000; our exports of foreign and colonial merchandise at ￡10,000,000; and our exports of british and irish produce and manufactures at ￡38,000,000. in 1840 these sums had respectively increased to ￡67,000,000, ￡13,000,000, and ￡102,000,000, setting aside odd numbers. from 1831 to 1840 the average annual export of british produce and manufactures was ￡45,000,000, while in the nine subsequent years it was nearly ￡56,000,000. from[423] 1830 onwards the value of our exports to france increased sixfold, notwithstanding the jealous system of protection that prevails in that country. the sphere of our commercial operations was being continually enlarged from year to year, and the enterprise of our merchants was continually opening up fresh markets in distant parts of the world. the value of the exports of british and irish produce in 1820 was as follows:—to northern europe, ￡11,000,000; to southern europe, ￡7,000,000; to africa, ￡393,000; to asia, nearly ￡4,000,000; to the united states of america, nearly ￡4,000,000; to the british north american colonies and the west indies, ￡5,750,000; to central and south america, including brazil, ￡3,000,000. the total value of our exports to foreign countries, and to our colonies in that year, was ￡36,000,000. in 1840 we exported the following quantities, which, it will be seen, show a large increase:—to northern europe, about ￡12,000,000; to southern europe, ￡9,000,000; to africa, ￡1,500,000; to asia, ￡9,000,000; to the united states, ￡5,250,000; to the british north american colonies, ￡6,500,000; to the foreign west indies, ￡1,000,000; to central and southern america, including brazil, ￡6,000,000; total, ￡51,000,000: showing an increase of ￡15,000,000 in the annual value of our exports to foreign countries during twenty years.

in 1821, 7,250,000 lbs. of coffee were consumed by fourteen millions of people in great britain. in 1824 the consumption of coffee in the united kingdom was 8,250,000 lbs., and the duties were—on foreign coffee, 2s. 6d. per lb.; east india, 1s. 6d.; british west india, 1s. per lb. in the same year the consumption was—of foreign coffee, 1,540 lbs.; east india, 313,000 lbs.; west india, about 800,000 lbs. in the following year mr. huskisson reduced the duties on these several kinds to 1s. 3d., 9d., and 6d., respectively, which caused a rapid increase in the consumption. in 1840 the consumption was—of east and west india, 14,500,000 lbs.; and of foreign, 14,000,000 lbs. in 1841, 27,250,000 lbs. were consumed by eighteen and a half millions of people. the tea trade with china was used by the east india company for the purpose of enriching itself by an enormous tax upon the british consumer. during one hundred years it ranged from 2s. to 4s. in the pound excise duty, with a customs duty of 14 per cent., down to a total minimum duty of 12? per cent. the former duty was estimated at 200 per cent. on the value of the common teas. the effect, as might be expected, was an enormous amount of smuggling. the monopoly of the company was abolished; it was made lawful for any person to import tea by the act 4 william iv., c. 85; and the trade was opened on the 22nd of april, 1834. the ad valorem duties were abolished, and all the bohea tea imported for home consumption was charged with a customs duty of 1s. 6d. per lb.; congou and other teas of superior quality were charged 2s. 2d. per lb., and some 3s. per lb. in 1836 these various duties gave place to a uniform one of 2s. 1d. per lb., which, with the addition of 5 per cent., imposed in 1840, continued till 1851, when the penny was removed. during the last year of restricted trade (1833) our aggregate importations amounted to 32,000,000 lbs.; during the first year of free trade, they bounded up to 44,000,000 lbs.; and in 1856 they had attained to 86,000,000 lbs. the average price of tea per lb., including duty, in 1834, was 4s. 4d. in 1821 the total quantity of tea imported into great britain was upwards of 31,000,000 lbs., and its value ￡1,873,886; in 1834 the quantity was about 35,000,000 lbs., and the value about ￡2,000,000. in 1837 the quantity was about 40,000,000 lbs.

in 1820 the amount of revenue paid into the exchequer as the produce of taxation was ￡54,000,000. the interest upon the national debt was ￡31,000,000, and the sums applied to the redemption of public debt were about ￡2,000,000. at the same time the current annual expenditure was ￡21,000,000. the revenue increased to ￡59,000,000 in 1824, after which it declined to ￡50,000,000 in 1830, when the annual expenditure was reduced to ￡18,000,000. in 1840 the revenue was ￡47,000,000, and the interest on the public debt ￡29,000,000; the total amount paid and expended being ￡49,000,000.

great britain bears a heavy burden of taxation, yet she does not seem to feel it. many years ago mr. disraeli, in the house of commons, called the national debt a "flea-bite." it is not quite so light a matter as that; still, it does not seem to render her step less firm, nor retard her progress, nor give her much trouble. it is a matter of wonder to foreigners how the british people manage to have so much money after paying so smartly in the shape of taxes, and spending so much on food, clothing, and household accommodation. the secret lies in the wonderful industry and thrift in the masses of the people. they work hard, live well, and waste little. the number of people who live in great britain without labouring in any way for their support with head or hand is very small. of 5,812,000 males twenty years of[424] age and upwards, in 1831, no less than 5,466,000 were engaged in some calling or profession. the progressive well-being of the middle classes of england has been indicated very satisfactorily by the improved character of their dwellings. if the country is more healthful than the city, one cause may be found in the less crowded state of the habitations. in the country the proportion was about five and a half persons on an average in each house; in london about a third more. in scotland the proportion was six to ten in 1831, and in ireland it was six to twelve, taking the capital in each case as representing the urban population. the number of inhabited houses which england contained in 1821 was 1,952,000; in ireland the number was 1,142,602; in scotland it was 341,474. in 1841 the numbers were—england, 2,753,295; ireland, 1,328,839; scotland, 503,357. the large increase in scotland is accounted for by the fact that in the returns of 1841 "flats" were set down as houses, which was not the case in the first return. the tax on inhabited houses rated in three classes from ￡10 to ￡20, from ￡20 to ￡40, and from ￡40 and upwards. from 1821 to 1833 the houses rated at ￡40 and upwards increased in england from 69,000 to 84,000. the other two classes of houses increased in about the same proportion. the house duty was repealed in 1834. there was a duty on bricks till 1850, by which means the quantity consumed was ascertained, and the increase between 1821 and 1847 was 130 per cent. between the years 1821 and 1841 the use of carriages with four wheels increased 60 per cent.—double the ratio of the increase of the population. in the meantime hired carriages had increased from 20,000 to 33,000. colonel sykes, at a meeting of the statistical society, counted the cost of keeping a four-wheeled private carriage, including servants, at ￡250 a year. this may be too high an estimate; but taking four-wheeled and two-wheeled carriages together, mr. porter thought the average expense was not less than ￡100 a year for each, which would give more than ￡5,000,000 for this luxury in 1821, more than ￡9,000,000 for 1831, and more than ￡10,000,000 for 1841—a proof of wealth which no other country in europe could show.

the proofs of this prosperity have been exhibited in various other ways. in 1815 the yearly value of dwelling-houses in england and wales was ￡14,000,000 for nearly 10,000,000 of people; in 1841 the yearly rental was ￡23,000,000 for under 16,000,000 of people; which, reckoning the rental at twenty years' purchase, shows an investment in houses of capital amounting to ￡180,000,000 in twenty-six years. counting since the peace in 1815, it was estimated that the real property of england and wales in the form of additional dwellings must have absorbed ￡240,000,000 of capital. sir robert peel, in bringing forward his proposal for an income tax in 1842, assumed the value of real property in great britain to be as follows:—rent of land, ￡39,400,000; rent of houses, ￡25,000,000; tithes, mines, etc., ￡8,400,000: total, ￡72,800,000, which, at twenty-five years' purchase, would be equal to a capital of ￡1,820,000,000. the annual value of real property actually assessed to the property and income tax in 1843 turned out to be much more than sir robert peel estimated, amounting to more than ￡95,000,000 a year.

savings-banks afford a very good index to the improved condition of the working classes. in 1830 the total number of depositors in the united kingdom was 412,000; and the amount deposited, ￡13,500,000. in 1840 the number of depositors had increased to nearly 800,000, and the amount to ￡23,500,000. the total number of depositors in 1845 was 1,000,000, and the amount of investments nearly ￡33,000,000. of this sum, domestic servants, nearly all females, deposited ￡80,000.

[425]

the overland route: scene at boulak.

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the earliest statistics by which the progress of popular education may be measured are contained in the parliamentary returns of 1813, when there were in england and wales nearly 20,000 day schools, with about 675,000 scholars, giving the proportion of 1 in 17 of the population. there were also 5,463 sunday schools, with 477,000 scholars, or 1 in 24 of the population. lord kerry's parliamentary returns for 1833 showed the number of day schools and scholars to be nearly doubled, and the proportion to be 1 in 11 of the population. the sunday schools, during the same period, were trebled in number, and also in the aggregate of children attending; while their proportion to the population was 1 in 9—the population having in the interval increased 24 per cent., the day scholars 89 per cent., and the sunday scholars 225 per cent. up to this time (1833) the work of education was conducted by private liberality, incited mainly by religious zeal, and acting through the agencies of the two great societies, the british and the national. in that year government came to their aid, and a meagre grant of ￡20,000 a year continued to be made till 1839, when it was increased to ￡30,000. this was shared between the two societies,[426] representing two educational parties. the principle of the british and foreign school society, chiefly supported by dissenters, was, that the bible should be read without note or comment in the schools, and that there should be no catechism admitted, or special religious instruction of any kind. the schools of the national society, on the other hand, were strictly church schools, in which the church catechism must be taught. the total number of schools in 1841 was 46,000, of which 30,000 were private. these statistics indicate an immense amount of private energy and enterprise, the more gratifying from the fact that the greater portion of the progress was due to the working classes themselves. great improvements had been effected in the art of teaching. both the british and the national societies from the beginning devoted much attention to the training of efficient teachers. in 1828 the former sent out 87 trained teachers; in 1838 as many as 183. the national society commenced a training institution in 1811, and after forty years' progress it had five training colleges, sending out 270 teachers every year.

the feeling of humanity that gained ground among the masses powerfully affected the middle classes. the consequence was that the state of public feeling produced by the practical inculcation of christianity and the diffusion of knowledge compelled our legislature to change its system, despite the obstinate resistance of lords eldon and ellenborough, hardened by a long official familiarity with the destructive operation of legal cruelty. how fearful the amount of that destruction was we may infer from the calculation of mr. redgrave, of the home office, who stated that had the offences tried in 1841 been tried under the laws of 1831, the eighty capital sentences would have been increased to 2,172. mr. redgrave gave the following succinct history of the mitigation of the criminal code during the reigns of george iv. and william iv., in a series of enactments which were extorted from a reluctant legislature by society, humanised through the education of the masses:—in 1826, 1827, and 1828 sir robert peel carried several very important bills for the consolidation and amendment of the criminal laws, but these bills did not abolish capital punishments. that statesman, indeed, made it a matter of boast that he did not constitute any new capital felonies, and pointed out an instance in which he had abated the capital punishment by increasing from 40s. to ￡5, the sum of which the theft in a dwelling-house constituted a capital offence, and by widening the technical description of a dwelling. in 1830 sir robert peel brought in his forgery bill, and petitions were poured into the house from all quarters against the re-enactment of the severe penalties for this offence. sir james mackintosh again took up the subject, and moved that the capital punishment be struck out from the bill. he was unsuccessful; but in the last stage of the measure mr. spring-rice was enabled to defeat the ministry by a majority of 151 to 138, and to remove the sentence of death from the bill. it was, however, restored by the lords, and the bill, as altered, was suffered to pass the house of commons at the end of the session. in 1832 two most important bills for abolishing capital punishments were passed. mr. ewart, assisted by the government, was able to carry a bill abolishing the punishment of death in cases of horse, sheep, and cattle stealing, and larceny in a dwelling-house. he was opposed by sir robert peel, and an amendment was made in the lords, subjecting these offences to the fixed penalty of transportation for life. at the same time, ministers brought in a bill for abolishing capital punishment in cases of forgery. the bill was introduced into the commons by the attorney-general, and into the house of lords by the lord chancellor. it passed into law, but an amendment was made in the house of lords, under protest of the lord chancellor, exempting the forgery of wills and powers of attorney to transfer stock, which offences were left capital. in 1833 mr. leonard carried his bill for abolishing capital punishment for housebreaking, executions for which offence were continued down to 1830. in 1834 mr. ewart carried a bill for abolishing capital punishment for returning from transportation, and in the following year for sacrilege and letter-stealing. this was the state of the criminal law when lord john russell brought in bills for its mitigation, founded on the report of a committee which government had appointed. the little progress which sir s. romilly and sir j. mackintosh had made in opposition to the governments of their day will be seen by the foregoing sketch, as well as the extensive and salutary changes which followed. lord john russell's bills effected an extensive abolition of the sentence of death, and a mitigation of the secondary punishments. he was enabled to abolish capital punishments in all cases but murder and attempts to murder where dangerous bodily injuries were effected; burglary and robbery when attended with violence or wounds; arson of dwelling-houses where life was endangered; and six other offences of[427] very rare occurrence. the number of capital convictions in 1829 was 1,385; and in 1834, three years after the extensive abolition of capital punishments, the number was reduced to 480.

by means of the classification of offences, which took place for the first time in 1834, it was possible to ascertain the effects of education upon crime; and the result was most satisfactory, falsifying the evil prognostications of the enemies of popular instruction, and proving that, instead of stimulating the faculties merely to give greater development to criminal propensities, and greater ingenuity to offenders, it really operated as an effective restraint; insomuch that crime was confined almost entirely to the uneducated. in 1835 returns were first obtained of the degree of instruction that had been imparted to persons committed for trial—distinguishing, 1st, persons who can neither read nor write; 2ndly, persons who can read only, or read and write imperfectly; 3rdly, persons who can read and write well; and, 4thly, persons who have received instruction beyond the elementary branches of reading and writing. the result of a comparison upon this point, during thirteen years from that date, was all that the most sanguine friends of popular education could desire, and more than they could have anticipated. out of 335,429 persons committed, and whose degrees of instruction were ascertained, the uninstructed criminals were more than 90 out of every 100; while only about 1,300 offenders had enjoyed the advantages of instruction beyond the elementary degree, and not 30,000 had advanced beyond the mere art of reading and writing. then, with regard to females, among the 30,000 that could read and write there were only about 3,000, or 10 per cent. of the female sex; and among those who had received superior instruction there were only 53 females accused of crimes, throughout england and wales, in thirteen years—that is, at the rate of four persons for each year. in the year 1841 not one educated female was committed for trial out of nearly 8,000,000 of the sex then living in this part of the united kingdom. in the disturbances which took place in cheshire, lancashire, and staffordshire, as appeared by the trials that were held in 1842, out of 567 persons tried, there were only 73 who could read and write well, and only one person who had received a superior education—a fact full of instruction as to the duty of the state in respect to the education of the people.

in 1831 the number of churches and chapels of the church of england amounted to 11,825; the number in 1851, as returned to the census officer, was 13,854, exclusive of 223 described as being "not separate buildings," or as "used also for secular purposes," thus showing an increase in the course of twenty years, of more than 2,000 churches. probably the increase was, in reality, still larger, as it can hardly be expected that the returns were altogether perfect. the greater portion of this increase is attributable to the self-extending power of the church—the state not having in the twenty years contributed, in aid of private benefactions, more than ￡511,385 towards the erection of 386 churches. if we assume the average cost of each new edifice to be about ￡3,000, the total sum expended in this interval (exclusive of considerable sums devoted to the restoration of old churches) will be ￡6,087,000. the chief addition occurred, as was to be expected and desired, in thickly peopled districts, where the rapid increase of inhabitants rendered such additional accommodation most essential. in the ten years between 1821 and 1831 there was an addition of 276 churches; from 1831 to 1841, 667 were added. taking the nonconformist communities, we find the statistics of the progress of the independents, or congregationalists, to be scarcely less remarkable than those of the established church. the earliest account of the number of independent congregations refers to 1812. before that period independent and presbyterian congregations were returned together. at that time the number of independent churches in england and wales was a little over 1,000. in 1838 the churches had increased to 1,840, and the census of 1851 made the number 3,244, of which 640 were in wales. these places of worship furnished sittings for 1,063,000 persons.

the wesleyan methodists were next in number to the members of the established church. the progress of this society was very rapid after 1820. in that year the number of its ministers was 718, and of its members or communicants in great britain, 191,000. in 1830 the numbers were respectively 824 and 248,000; and so largely did they increase in the next ten years, that in 1840 the ministers were 1,167, and the members 323,000. the 1851 census returns showed 6,579 chapels belonging to this connexion in england and wales, containing accommodation for 1,447,580 persons. the society of friends, on the other hand, was declining. the roman catholics made considerable progress in england during the last two reigns. in 1829 they had 394 chapels, which[428] in 1840 had increased to 463, and in 1852 they reached 600. they had at the same time 11 colleges, 88 religious houses, and 875 priests. their chapels at the time of the census furnished accommodation for 186,000, and the number of attendants on the morning of census sunday of 1851 was 252,983.

the catholic and apostolic church, founded by the rev. edward irving, had at the time of the census of 1851 about 30 congregations, comprising nearly 6,000 communicants, and the number was said to be gradually increasing. mr. irving (who in 1819 assisted dr. chalmers at glasgow) was the minister of the scottish church, regent square, london, very eloquent, and very eccentric; and towards the close of 1829 it was asserted that several miraculous gifts of healing and prophecy, and of speaking with strange tongues, were displayed in his congregation. having been excluded from the scottish church, a chapel was erected for him, in 1832, in newman street. in the course of a few years other churches were erected in different places. the apostolic church was established on the model of the jewish tabernacle, with twelve apostles, a new order of prophets, etc. in 1836 they delivered their testimony to the archbishop of canterbury, to most of the bishops, and to many ministers in different denominations. they also resolved to deliver their testimony to the king in person, and "to as many privy councillors as could be found, or would receive it." in 1837 a "catholic testimony" was addressed to the patriarchs, bishops, and sovereigns of christendom, and was subsequently delivered to cardinal acton for the pope, to prince metternich for the emperor of austria, and to other bishops and kings throughout europe.

on the whole, there was a fair amount of religious activity throughout the british islands, and as a consequence drunkenness and vulgar amusements were on the decline. of the lights of the establishment, archbishop manners sutton was primate until his death in 1828, when he was succeeded by the amiable dr. howley. bishop phillpotts of exeter was undoubtedly the hardest hitter on the episcopal bench, and zeal for the welfare of the church was admirably represented by bishop blomfield of london. he was one of the most staunch supporters of king's college, and an earnest advocate of church extension. it is hardly necessary to mention the name of the witty canon of st. paul's, sydney smith. during the earlier years of this period the tone of the church was distinctly evangelical, but a reaction which had its origin in oxford university had already begun, whose supporters were known as the "tractarian party," from a series of publications, called "tracts for the times," written by oxford divines, advocating patristic theology, contending for apostolic succession as necessary to the validity of the sacraments, for baptismal regeneration, and the real presence in the eucharist, condemning the reformation as a great evil, and claiming for the anglican church the right to be regarded as the only true orthodox church in england. the growing strength of the party had manifested itself on the occasion of the appointment of dr. hampden to the regius professorship of divinity at oxford in 1836. dr. pusey and dr. newman were among the most vigorous of the protesters against that unfortunate divine, against whom the charge was made that his bampton lectures contained doctrines which savoured of socinianism. the outcry was great, and the hampden controversy threatened to break up the establishment. lord melbourne, however, who had recommended dr. hampden on the advice of archbishop whately and bishop coplestone, declined to cancel the appointment, and the excitement died away for the time, though it was renewed in a milder form when in 1847 dr. hampden was created bishop of hereford.

the first general assembly of the free church of scotland.

signing the act of separation and deed of demission at tanfield, edinburgh, may 23rd, 1843.

from the painting by d. o. hill, r.s.a.

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dr. chalmers. (after the portrait by john faed, r.s.a.)

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in ireland roman catholicism was represented by archbishop murray and dr. doyle, the eloquent bishop of kildare. the majority of the irish churchmen were evangelical, and hence came often into collision with archbishop whately, who was a powerful supporter of the system of mixed education. the scottish churches at that time possessed a number of ministers of great power and eminence, each exerting in his own denomination extensive influence. dr. andrew thomson, a mighty spirit, had reached the meridian of his great popularity. dr. chalmers was rising fast to the commanding position he so long occupied. among the baptists the most important names were those of two laymen, james and robert haldane, who not only preached throughout scotland, but organised a vast missionary scheme for india. in the united presbyterian church the ablest man was dr. john brown, of edinburgh, wielding great influence as a theological professor, and as the pastor of a large congregation in that city. in glasgow the rev. greville ewing had founded the independent church, then new to scotland. associated with him was a man not less gentle in spirit, but with intellectual power much more[429] commanding, and of the highest cultivation as a theologian—dr. wardlaw, who during his life continued the foremost man among the scottish congregationalists. dr. russell, of dundee, possessing an intellect of great force, with an energetic temperament, contributed his share to the great controversy which continued for a number of years to agitate the whole scottish nation, till it issued in the disruption, and in the establishment of the free church. that movement had already begun, and the decision of the house of lords in the auchterarder case had made the schism inevitable. among english nonconformists the greatest names of the independents were those of dr. fletcher, of finsbury chapel, john burnet, of camberwell, john angell james, of birmingham, and william jay, of bath. john williams was preaching the gospel to the melanesians, and dr. moffat in south africa. the baptists could boast robert hall, and the essayist john foster; their greatest missionary was perhaps dr. carey. of the leading wesleyans we may notice the names of dr. bunting and dr. adam clarke. the two chief events which affected that body during the period were—the secession in 1834, when dr warren and his followers, called "warrenites," separated from the conference, and the last secession, when 100,000 broke off, forming a new community. all the seceding bodies—the kilhamites, or new connexion methodists; the bible christians, or bryanites; the wesleyan methodist association, formed in 1835; and last, the wesleyan methodist reformers—separated on the alleged ground of the tyrannical powers exercised by the conference, and the exclusion of the laity[430] from their due share in the management of the body.

until the beginning of the nineteenth century the state of mathematical science was very low in england. the commencement of a better era originated with woodhouse at cambridge and playfair in edinburgh, by both of whom the continental methods were introduced into the studies of their respective universities. about 1820 the translation of la croix's "differential calculus," superintended by sir john herschel and dean peacock, came into use as a text-book. soon afterwards the writings of laplace and poisson were generally read in the universities; and a few men of active and daring minds, chiefly of the cambridge school, such as professor airy and sir john lubbock, grappled with the outstanding difficulties of physical astronomy; whilst a larger number applied themselves to the most difficult parts of pure analysis, and acquired great dexterity in its use, in the solution of geometrical and mechanical problems.

sir john f. w. herschel, son of sir william herschel, conversant with almost every branch of science, also devoted himself with remarkable success to the cultivation of sidereal astronomy. he evinced very early a taste for mathematics, but did not devote himself to astronomy until after his father's death in 1822. he then gave himself up to it without reserve. at that period the southern hemisphere was to astronomers little more than an unknown region. for the purpose of exploring it, he visited the cape of good hope in 1834, where, making use of his father's method, he continued his observations for more than four years, examining with great care, among other things, the nebul? and double stars. on his return to europe, he gave the results of his labours to the world in a work of deep interest, and of the highest importance; and the value of the services he had rendered to science was recognised, not only by the scientific world, but by his sovereign also, who created him a baronet. after he was appointed master of the mint, in 1850, he took no further part in practical astronomy, but he published many excellent works, not only on that subject, but on science generally; and he displayed a thorough acquaintance with natural history, the belles-lettres, and the fine arts, and translated a portion of the "iliad." this great astronomer and mathematician died in may, 1871. lord rosse's labours to improve the telescope commenced about 1828, and continued unremittingly until 1844. his masterpiece was of six feet aperture and 54 feet in focal length.

amongst the foremost of the promoters of science, and the most eloquent of its expounders, was sir david brewster, who died full of years and of honours in 1868. arrived at manhood at the opening of the present century, having been born in 1781, he continued his brilliant course during fifty years, pursuing his investigations into the laws of polarisation by crystals, and by the reflection, refraction, and absorption of light, in which he made important discoveries. the attention of the british public was forcibly arrested by an able treatise on "light," contributed by sir john herschel, in 1827, to the "encyclop?dia metropolitana." its excellent method and lucid explanations attracted to the theory of young and fresnel men of science who had been deterred by the fragmentary and abstruse style of the former. this was followed four years later by a most able and precise mathematical exposition of the theory, and its application to optical problems, by professor airy, who became astronomer-royal in 1835.

while an impulse was thus given to the mathematical theory of light in the university of cambridge, similar progress was being made in the sister university of dublin, where three of her most eminent professors—sir william rowan hamilton, dr. lloyd, and mr. m'cullagh—devoted themselves energetically to its improvement and verification. sir william hamilton, a geometer of the first order, having undertaken a more complete discussion of the wave surface of fresnel, to the equation of which he gave a more elegant form, ascertained the exact nature of that surface, and consequently the exact direction of refracted rays in the neighbourhood of the optic axes. the beautiful and unexpected results he obtained were verified by his friend dr. lloyd. the names of sir william r. hamilton and dr. lloyd will be handed down to posterity in connection with this discovery. "but," says professor forbes, "they have other claims to our respect. the former has generalised the most complicated cases of common geometrical optics, by a peculiar analysis developed in his essays on 'systems of rays.' to dr. lloyd we are indebted for several interesting experimental papers on optics, for an impartial review of the progress of the science, and for an excellent elementary treatise on the wave theory."

in the galaxy of illustrious names that shed light upon this age, not the least conspicuous is that of mary somerville, who is known in british[431] science not only as the able commentator of laplace's "mécanique céleste," but as the author of some ingenious experiments on the magnetising power of the violet ray, and on the permeability of different bodies to the chemical rays, similar to those of melloni on the heating rays; and she found great and seemingly capricious variations in this respect. the beautiful invention of the stereoscope, one of the most interesting contributions made to the theory of vision, was the work of mr. wheatstone, who published an account of it in the "philosophical transactions" of 1838. in connection with experiments of this class should be mentioned the invention of the daguerreotype, or the production of permanent pictures on plated copper, in 1825, which was brought to perfection in 1839 by daguerre, whose name it bears. about the same time henry fox talbot applied himself to similar experiments, and invented the calotype, or the production of permanent pictures on paper; and by a subsequent invention he obtained what he justly called "an instantaneous process." the science of photography was, however, in its infancy.

but far more important are the wondrous powers evolved from the study of heat. the pioneer in this branch of work was the hon. h. cavendish, who was born in 1731, and devoted his life, until his death in 1810, to the pursuits of science. he was followed by dalton, who made several important discoveries in chemistry, particularly with reference to the gases, and in the doctrine of heat. with the greatest modesty and simplicity of character, he remained in the obscurity of the country, neither asking for approbation nor offering himself as an object of applause. in 1833, at the age of sixty-seven, he received a pension from government, which he enjoyed till 1844, when he died. his discoveries may be said to have terminated at the age of forty, though he laboured for thirty years after. his first sketch of the atomic theory was propounded as early as 1807.

sir mark isambard brunel, a hero of mechanical science, made a great step in advance by the invention of self-acting machinery to supersede the work of artisans, by which a new epoch was created in art. the greatest effort of brunel was the thames tunnel, a structure of perfect firmness and solidity laid on a quicksand, and forced through a quaking mass of mud, which will endure like the cloac? of regal rome, when the palace and the cathedral have crumbled to dust. he was enabled to accomplish this prodigious work by means of "the shield"—a movable vertical frame of cast iron, provided with thirty-six cells, in each of which a man was placed with a pick to excavate the area, this frame or shield being moved bodily forward by powerful screws, while the bricklayers brought up the arched masonry behind, which was then beyond the power of injury. the works, however, were several times "drowned" during their progress by the irruptions of the thames, but every fresh difficulty was met successfully by the heroic engineer. the tunnel was commenced on the 2nd of march, 1825, and finished on the 25th of march, 1843. brunel survived the completion of this, his greatest work, above six years, dying on the 12th of december, 1849.

mention must be made of the extraordinary calculating machines of charles babbage. a few years after leaving college he originated the plan of a machine for calculating tables, by means of successive orders of differences, and having received for it, in 1822 and the following year, the support of the astronomical and royal societies, and a grant of money from government, he proceeded to its execution. he also in 1834 contrived a machine called the "analytical engine," extending the plan so as to develop algebraic quantities, and to tabulate the numerical value of complicated functions, when one or more of the variables which they contain are made to alter their values; but the difficulties of carrying out this plan became insurmountable. in 1839 babbage resigned the professorship of mathematics in the university of cambridge. he died at the end of 1871, having devoted his life to the study and advancement of science.

joseph mallord william turner (born in 1775) has been pronounced as "essentially the great founder of english landscape painting, the greatest poet-artist our nation has yet produced. he excelled in everything—from the mere diagram and topographic map to the most consummate truth and the most refined idealism. in every touch of his there was profound thought and meaning." he was unrivalled in storms; as napoleon said of kleber, "he wakes on the day of battle." the remark of admiral bowles, when looking at turner's "wreck of the minotaur," conveyed the highest compliment to his art—"no ship could live in such a sea." his "man overboard" is a still higher effort of genius, in conveying an expression of horror and utter despair. he was the best illustrator of our national poets. he made known to englishmen[432] the beauties of their native land, and made them acquainted with the picturesque on the continent. he gave our young artists love for colour, and made us the venetians of the modern school. from "the fighting temeraire tugged to her last moorings," to "wilkie's burial," and the "burning of the houses of parliament," he let no event of his age pass without record or comment. he died in 1851.

joseph mallord william turner. (after the portrait by c. turner.)

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the fame of sir thomas lawrence (b. 1769) had attained to its meridian in this period. in portrait painting he was one of the most distinguished artists of the day, and he attained proficiency in it without having gone to italy or studied the old masters. it has been said of him, as well as of sir joshua reynolds, that he painted three generations of beauties. he went to aix-la-chapelle in 1818, by invitation, to take the likenesses of the most distinguished statesmen who were there assembled for diplomatic purposes. during his residence on the continent he was received by the sovereigns of the different countries he visited, and entertained with marked distinction; and the propriety and elegance of his deportment, we are told, made an impression highly favourable to his character. on his return he found that he had been unanimously elected to succeed west as the president of the royal academy, and this office he continued to hold till his death, which took place on the 7th of january, 1830.

sir david wilkie (b. 1785), one of the greatest of scottish painters, claims a few words here, especially regarding the latter part of his brilliant career. in 1820-1 he accomplished his masterpiece, "the chelsea pensioners listening to the[433] news of waterloo," for which he received 1,200 guineas from the duke of wellington. his later works did not increase his reputation, chiefly because he abandoned the style in which he excelled and adopted the pseudo-spanish. in 1830 he was made painter in ordinary to his majesty on the death of lawrence, and became a candidate for the presidentship of the royal academy, but had only one vote recorded in his favour. between 1830 and 1840 he painted a considerable number of works, among which were "john knox preaching before mary," and "the discovery of the body of tippoo sahib," painted for the widow of sir david baird, for ￡1,500. in 1836 he was knighted, and in 1840 he set out on a tour to the east, and went as far as jerusalem, which he viewed with rapture. at constantinople he had the honour of painting the sultan for the queen. he returned by egypt, but never saw his native land again. he died off gibraltar, and, the burial service having been read by torchlight, his body was committed to the deep, on the 1st of june, 1841.

abbotsford and the eildon hills. (from a photograph by valentine & sons, dundee.)

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in the lives of english painters the story of benjamin robert haydon is perhaps the saddest. in youth he devoted himself with such zeal to the study of art that people wondered how he ever found time to eat. he was one of those men of genius who may be called "unlucky." he was always in pecuniary difficulties, though his father allowed him ￡200 per annum in the earlier part of his career. he applied for admission into the academy, but did not obtain a single vote; and he got involved in controversies, which continued to embitter his life. he succeeded at last, however, by his energy, in commanding public attention and winning fame. for the "judgment of solomon" he received ￡700, with ￡100 voted to him by the directors of the british institution, and the freedom of plymouth. his pictures were, however, very unequal; here and there was a powerful piece of work, but the whole was generally rough and unfinished. he committed suicide in 1846. sculpture, which was then at its lowest ebb, was relieved alone from vacuity by the works of chantrey, flaxman, and gibson.

in architecture the first place is due to the patriarch of the science, sir john soane, who was[434] employed in erecting or improving numerous public edifices in the metropolis and elsewhere. the atrocious law-courts, which he added to westminster hall, were happily removed in 1883. in 1826 he built the freemasons' hall, in great queen street, having been chosen grand superintendent of works to the fraternity of freemasons some years before. in 1833 he completed the state paper office in st. james's park. he was now in his eightieth year, and he retired from the active labours of the profession in which he had been engaged for sixty years, during forty-five of which he had been in the service of the bank of england. at his death, which occurred on january 20th, 1837, his house and museum in lincoln's inn fields became the property of the public.

sir charles barry was the architect of numerous buildings, but his greatest work was the new palace of westminster. when the old houses of parliament were burned down in 1834, amongst the numerous designs sent in mr. barry's was selected, and he had the honour of constructing the magnificent temple of legislation in which the most powerful body in the world debates and deliberates, upon the old, classic site, rendered sacred by so many events in our history. it has been disputed whether the style of the building is altogether worthy of the locality and the object, and whether grander and more appropriate effects might not have been produced by the vast sums expended. but it has been remarked in defence of the artist, that the design was made almost at the commencement of the revival of our national architecture, and that, this fact being considered, the impression will be one of admiration for the genius of the architect that conceived such a work; and the conviction will remain that by it sir charles barry did real service to the progress of english art.

the two pugins, father and son, had much to do with the revival of gothic architecture among us. the father, augustus, born in france in 1769, came over to london to practise his profession. in 1821-3 he published "specimens of gothic architecture," selected from various ancient edifices in england; and in 1825-28 "specimens of the architectural antiquities of normandy." the year before his death, in 1832, he assisted his son in producing a work entitled "gothic ornaments," selected from various buildings in england and france. augustus welby pugin, who was born in 1811, very soon eclipsed his father's fame. having resolved to devote his time to the arch?ological study of style and symbolism in architectural ornaments, he settled down at ramsgate in 1833, and carried his resolution into effect both with pen and pencil. in 1835 he published designs for furniture, in the style of the fifteenth century; and designs for iron and brass work, in the style of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. the year following appeared his "designs for gold and silver ornaments, and ancient timber houses." his exclusive and ardent devotion to these studies, aided, no doubt, by his habits of seclusion, began to produce a morbid effect upon his intellect, which was shown in the overweening arrogance of a tract entitled "contrasts; or, a parallel between ancient and modern architecture." this morbid tendency probably was increased by his becoming a member of the roman catholic church, in which a great field was opened for the display of his peculiar tastes by the construction of buildings which he expected would shame the degenerate taste of the age, but which, too often, were found to be gloomy and inconvenient. his principal works were the cathedral of st. george, southwark, the church of st. barnabas, at nottingham, the cistercian abbey of st. bernard, in leicestershire, the cathedral churches of killarney and enniscorthy, alton castle, and the model structure which he erected at his own place near ramsgate. the medi?val court in the exhibition of 1851 was associated in all minds with the name of pugin. in his case genius was too nearly allied to madness. the awful boundary was passed towards the close of his life, when his friends were obliged to confine him in a lunatic asylum, from which he returned only to die in 1852.

among the historians of the time there are three or four names that deserve to be specially mentioned. the first is that of sir james mackintosh, who, notwithstanding the pressure of parliamentary duties and the attractions of london society, so far conquered his constitutional indolence, increased by his residence in india, as to produce some literary works so valuable that it has been a source of regret that he could not find time to give to the world something more than fragments. his dissertation on "the progress of ethical philosophy" shows what he could have accomplished in that field; while his three volumes of "the history of england" caused a general feeling of disappointment that he was not spared to complete the work. he was engaged on a history of the revolution of 1688 when he died, rather suddenly, in may, 1832.

the english roman catholics produced an[435] historian—dr. lingard—who, for the correctness and strength of his diction, as well as the extent of his learning, ranks among the first names in this department of literature. he was a man of great force of mind, remarkable acuteness in testing historical evidence, and considerable powers of description. being a priest, it was not to be expected that he would be impartial in his treatment of the events and characters of the reformation, and the subsequent conflicts between the churches of england and rome. of his own church he was a zealous defender and a skilful apologist; but where that bias did not interfere, his judgments were generally sound. he died in 1851.

henry hallam, who died in 1859, occupies a higher ground than lingard, having no party interests to serve, and having a mind singularly free from prejudice, as well as a conscientious regard for truth in his records and judgments; while his clear, impressive, and graceful style invests dry details with interest. his "view of the state of europe during the middle ages," a work of great learning and value, was followed, in 1827, by his "constitutional history of england;" and ten years later he published, in four volumes, an "introduction to the literature of europe in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries." this is his greatest work, and in point of learning and utility and purity of style it may be regarded as one of the greatest in the english language. these works placed mr. hallam, by general consent, at the head of contemporary historians.

the history of the peninsular war was written very ably and faithfully by a soldier who bore a distinguished part in it—general sir w. f. p. napier, one of three brothers, all eminently distinguished for their talents and achievements. about the time when this work was concluded appeared further illustrations of the war, in the "despatches of field-marshal the duke of wellington," which were edited by colonel gurwood, and which are very valuable. of these despatches it was justly remarked in the edinburgh review that no man ever before had the gratification of himself witnessing the formation of such a monument to his glory.

thomas moore, the poet, in the latter period of his life, published several biographical works—namely, a "life of richard brinsley sheridan," in 1825; "notices of the life of lord byron," in 1830; and "memoirs of lord edward fitzgerald," in 1831. byron had written memoirs of his own life, which he presented to moore, and by the publication of which a very large sum of money could have been made; but moore generously placed the ms. at the disposal of mrs. leigh, the poet's sister and executrix; and from a regard to his memory, they were consigned to the flames. it is supposed, however, that all that was valuable in them was found in the noble lord's journals and memorandum-books. among literary biographies—a class of publications highly interesting to cultivated minds—the first place is due to lockhart's "life of sir walter scott," a work that ranks next to boswell's "life of johnson."

the number of distinguished authors on miscellaneous subjects was very great at this time. in jurisprudence and political economy there were jeremy bentham, whose life ended in 1832; his eminent disciples, john stuart mill, dr. bowring, and dr. hill burton; archbishop whately, mr. m'culloch, mr. sadler, and mr. n. w. senior. de quincey began his brilliant career as an author in 1822, by the publication of "the confessions of an english opium-eater."

in 1827 began the plan of publishing monthly volumes of valuable scientific works, previously so expensive as to be beyond the reach of the multitude. to mr. constable, of edinburgh, belongs the credit of this plan; but he failed before it could be carried out. his name, however, was given to the series, and "constable's miscellany" was started in 1827. the works were issued in monthly numbers, at a shilling each, and in volumes at 3s. 6d. each. mr. murray, the eminent london publisher, took up the idea, and published monthly volumes of "the family library," at five shillings each. a series of "sacred classics" was also published. the "edinburgh cabinet library" commenced in 1830, and contained the works of some of the first writers of the day. there was also a series called a "library of entertaining knowledge," in four-shilling volumes, started by the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge, which was established in 1825. the first of its sixpenny treatises on science was issued in 1827. it was "a discourse on the objects, advantages, and pleasures of science," by henry brougham. the society thus began to work upon a vast field, a mere skirt of which it was able to cultivate.

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st. george's cathedral, southwark.

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sir walter scott has, perhaps, left the most permanent traces behind him. we have on many occasions mentioned this illustrious writer; perhaps this is a fitting time to speak more in detail of his career. he was born, in 1771, of a very respectable family, at edinburgh. he began his career as an author while very young; his earlier publications, though not successful in a pecuniary way, were greatly admired by good judges; and his undoubted talents, as well as his family connections, introduced him to men high in rank, whose influence became valuable to him, and also to the most distinguished literary characters of the time. his appointment as sheriff-depute of selkirkshire, by securing him a competent income, while its duties demanded but little of his time, enabled him to devote himself to his favourite pursuits; and his resources were further augmented by a small patrimony which he obtained at the death of his father, and by property he received with the lady whom he married. at this period he produced several poems, some of which were of considerable length, and he acquired a large amount of celebrity. "marmion" appeared in 1808, and "the lady of the lake" in 1810. his income from various sources became, after some time, very considerable; and happy would it have been for him had he been content with it. but ambition, of which he had long shown symptoms, became a master passion, and he yielded fatally to its influence. to hasten the acquisition of wealth, as a means of adding to the consequence and importance of his family, which was the dream of his life, he became a partner in a large publishing firm, which afterwards involved him in its ruin, and whose liabilities swallowed up the profits of a most successful career. the demands which it continually made on his resources compelled him to undertake literary drudgery, in addition to his ordinary labours; and the magnitude of the enterprises filled him with continual anxiety. his time was unremittingly occupied: from 1815 to 1825 he vanished, indeed, from public view; yet he was never more thoroughly employed. "waverley" made its appearance in 1814; but the name of the writer was, for some time, involved in impenetrable mystery. its success was unexampled, and it was followed by many similar productions. when the hour of sir walter scott's seemingly greatest prosperity had arrived, and his most sanguine expectations[437] appeared to be nearly realised, the crash came. the firm of which he had so long been a secret partner stopped payment; this event, besides entailing upon him immense pecuniary loss, inflicted a deep wound on his feelings by proclaiming to the world his connection with mercantile speculations. his conduct upon this trying occasion was, however, in accordance with his whole life; he refused to avail himself of any legal technicalities for the purpose of diminishing his responsibilities; and he not only gave up to the creditors of the concern with which he was so unfortunately connected all he then possessed, but devoted the energies of the remainder of his life to make up the large deficit that still remained. he afterwards realised the enormous sum of ￡40,000 by his writings, and shortly after his death his debts were paid in full by his executors. but his exertions had been too much for him; he became ultimately a wreck both in body and mind; every effort to recover health was in vain; the last few months of his life passed with very rare intervals of consciousness; and he expired, it may be said, prematurely, in the sixty-first year of his age. he ranks high as a poet, but far higher as the discoverer of a new world of fiction; in describing which, however numerous those who attempt to follow the course which he pursued, he is little likely ever to have a successful rival. he died in 1832, and so belongs more properly to the reign of george iii.

thomas moore.

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the age was remarkably prolific in female poets and novelists, some of whom have taken as high a rank in literature as their sex have done in any age. lady blessington and lady morgan were not young at the death of george iii., but many[438] of their most celebrated works were published during the two subsequent reigns. the former, soon after the death of lord blessington in 1829, fixed her residence in london at gore house, which became the centre of attraction for men of talent and distinction in every department. even great statesmen and ministers of the crown sometimes spent their evenings in her circle, which was then unrivalled in london for the combined charms of beauty, wit, and brilliant conversation; and besides, all the celebrities and lions of london were sure to be met there. the ambiguous attachment that so long subsisted between her and count d'orsay, one of the most accomplished men of the age, however, excluded lady blessington from the best society. the heavy expenses of her establishment compelled her to work hard with her pen, and she produced a number of works, which were in great demand in the circulating libraries of the day. they are no longer read. debt at length broke up the establishment at gore house, and all its precious collections passed under the hammer of the auctioneer, to satisfy inexorable creditors. lady blessington removed to paris, where she lived in retirement for some years, and died in 1849. lady morgan (sydney owenson) was before the country as an author for nearly half a century. she was born in dublin, in 1783, and died in 1859. before she was sixteen years of age she was the author of two novels. her third work, "the wild irish girl," brought to her the fame for which she longed, and made her a celebrity. in 1811 she married sir charles morgan, a dublin physician. her principal works as a novelist were "patriotic sketches," "o'donnell," "florence m'carthy," and "the o'briens and o'flahertys," which was published in 1827.

one of the most charming poets of the time was mrs. hemans, whose maiden name was felicia dorothea browne, daughter of a liverpool merchant, and sister of colonel browne, a distinguished officer, who was for many years one of the commissioners of the metropolitan police in dublin. in 1819 she obtained a prize of ￡50 for the best poem on the subject of sir william wallace; and in 1821 that awarded by the royal society of literature for the best poem on the subject of dartmoor. her next production was a tragedy, "the vespers of palermo," which was unsuccessful on the stage. "the forest sanctuary" appeared in 1826, and in 1828 "records of woman." in 1830 appeared "songs of the affections," and four years later, "national lyrics," "hymns for childhood," and "scenes and hymns of life." there was a collective edition of her works published, with a memoir by her sister, in 1839, and several other editions subsequently, not only in great britain, but in america, where her poems were exceedingly popular. she died in 1835.

letitia elizabeth landon, known as one of the most eminent female poets of her time, by the signature "l. e. l." which she appended to her numerous contributions in the magazines, was born at hans place, chelsea, in 1802. her "poetical sketches" were published first in the literary gazette. in 1824 appeared her "improvisatrice." she was the author of two other volumes of poetry, and of a successful novel. a spirit of melancholy pervades her writings; but it is stated by mr. l. blanchard, in the "life and literary remains," which he published, that she was remarkable for the vivacity and playfulness of her disposition. her poetry ranked very high in public estimation for its lyric beauty and touching pathos; but the circumstances of her early death, which was the subject of much controversy, invested her name with a tragic and romantic interest. in 1838 she was married to mr. george maclean, governor of cape coast castle, but the marriage was unhappy, and she died, shortly afterwards, from an overdose of laudanum.

robert pollok was a young scottish minister, who rose suddenly to popularity by the publication of a poem in blank verse, entitled "the course of time." it was long and discursive, extending to ten books. the style was very unequal, sometimes rising to a high level, and often sinking to tame prose. the author had a wonderful command of words for one so young, and time would, no doubt, have mellowed what was crude and refined what was coarse, if he had not been prematurely cut off, just when his genius and his goodness had gathered round him a host of warm friends. he died of consumption, on the 15th of september, 1827. his early death contributed to the popularity of the poem, which ran through many editions.

john wilson, though born so far back as 1785, was one of the writers of this period distinguished for originality, freshness, power, and rich fancy, combined with learning and eloquence. as "christopher north" he was long the delight of the readers of blackwood's magazine. his criticisms on poetry were distinguished by a profusion of thought and imagery, which flowed forth so rapidly, and sometimes so little under the control of judgment, that there seemed no reason why the[439] stream of illustration should not flow on for ever. he was a poet as well as a critic; but it is a singular fact that his imagination, like that of milton, was more active in prose than in verse. in the latter, his genius was like a spirited horse in harness; in the former, like the same horse unbridled, and bounding wildly over the prairies. his principal poetical work was "the isle of palms," published in 1812, which was followed by one more elaborate, "the city of the plague." among the most popular of his prose fictions are, "the lights and shadows of scottish life," "the trials of margaret lyndsay," and "the foresters." but it was in periodical literature that he shone most brightly. soon after the establishment of blackwood's magazine, in 1817, he became its chief editor, and thenceforward he poured forth through this organ all the treasures of his intellect. in 1820 he succeeded dr. thomas brown as professor of moral philosophy in the university of edinburgh, which he held till 1851, when he resigned, in consequence of ill-health, receiving about the same time a pension of ￡300 a year from the crown. as a professor he was greatly beloved by his students, on account of his genial nature and the warm interest he took in their welfare; and he was always surrounded by troops of friends, who respected his character almost as much as they admired his genius. he died in 1854.

the most distinguished dramatic writers of the time were sheridan knowles, sir edward bulwer lytton, mr. justice talfourd, and miss mitford. mr. knowles's first drama, caius gracchus, appeared in 1815, and was followed by more successful efforts, namely, the wife, a tale of mantua, the hunchback, virginius, the blind beggar of bethnal green, william tell, the love chase, old maids, and the daughter. ultimately, however, he became disgusted with the stage from religious scruples, and taking a fancy to polemics, he published two attacks upon romanism, entitled, "the rock of rome" and "the idol demolished by its own priest." he ended his career as a preacher in connection with the baptist denomination, and died in 1862, having enjoyed a literary pension of ￡200 a year since 1849.

sir e. bulwer lytton (afterwards lord lytton) is chiefly known as a most successful novelist, but he won fame also as a dramatic author, his chief productions in this line being the lady of lyons and richelieu. he was born in 1805, and was the youngest son of general bulwer, of haydon hall. he commenced the career of authorship very early, having written "weeds and wild flowers," "o'neil, the rebel," and "falkland," before the appearance of "pelham" in 1828. then in rapid succession appeared "the disowned," "devereux," "paul clifford," "eugene aram," "the last days of pompeii," "rienzi," "ernest maltravers," "alice, or the mysteries," "the last of the barons," "harold, or the last of the saxon kings," and several others. in 1831 he entered the house of commons, and represented lincoln till 1841. his political career, however, belongs to the reign of queen victoria.

the success of the waverley novels turned the main force of the genius and literary resources of the country into the ever widening channel of prose fiction. many names of note appeared before the public as novel writers about that time. in scotland, under the immediate shadow of the author of "waverley," came john galt, mrs. johnstone, miss ferrier, the ettrick shepherd, allan cunningham, gibson lockhart, picken, moir. in ireland, and of irish birth, there were colley, grattan, crofton croker, banim, gerald griffin, samuel lover, and last, though not least, william carleton. in england, and chiefly of english birth, were mrs. shelley, peacock, thomas hope, theodore and james hook, morier, lister, ward, gleig, horace smith, miss mitford, mrs. gore, mrs. trollope, captain marryat, and mr. james.

the changes in the manners and morals of the age since the reign of george iii. have been sufficiently indicated in the preceding pages. corresponding changes were gradually introduced in the world of fashion, though the conservative instinct of the aristocracy and the spirit of exclusiveness resisted innovation as long as possible. what was called "good society" was wonderfully select. the temple of fashion at the beginning of the reign of george iv. was almack's; and the divinities that under the name of lady patronesses presided there were the ladies castlereagh, jersey, cowper, and sefton, the princess esterhazy and the countess lieven. these and their associates gave the tone to the beau monde. we can scarcely now conceive the importance that was then attached to the privilege of getting admission to almack's. of the 300 officers of the foot guards, not more than half a dozen were honoured with vouchers. the most popular and influential amongst the grandes dames was lady cowper, afterwards lady palmerston. lady jersey was not popular, being inconceivably rude and insolent[440] in her manner. many diplomatic arts, much finesse, and a host of intrigues were set in motion to get an invitation to almack's. very often persons whose rank and fortune entitled them to the entrée anywhere were excluded by the cliquism of the lady patronesses. trousers had come into general use. they had been first worn by children, then adopted in the army, and from the army they came into fashion with civilians. but they were rigidly excluded from almack's, as well as the black tie, which also came into use about this time. the female oligarchy who ruled the world of fashion, or tried to do so, issued a solemn proclamation that no gentleman should appear at the assemblies without being dressed in knee-breeches, white cravat, and chapeau bras. on one occasion, we are told, the duke of wellington was about to ascend the staircase of the ball-room, dressed in black trousers, when the vigilant mr. willis, the guardian of the establishment, stepped forward, and said, "your grace cannot be admitted in trousers." whereupon the great captain quietly retreated, without daring to storm the citadel of fashion. the principal dances at almack's had been scottish reels, and the old english country dance. in 1815 lady jersey introduced from paris the quadrille which has so long remained popular. the mazy waltz was also imported about the same time. among the first who ventured to whirl round the salons of almack's was lord palmerston, his favourite partner being madame lieven. this new dance was so diligently cultivated in the houses of the nobility and gentry that the upper classes were affected with a waltzing mania.

the duke of wellington at almack's. (see p. 440.)

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the coarse manners of the gentlemen were gradually yielding to refining influences, but the society of ladies amongst the upper classes was generally neglected. husbands spent their days in hunting or other masculine occupations, and their evenings in dining and drinking; the dinner party, which commenced at seven, not breaking up before one in the morning. four- or five-, or even six-bottle men were not uncommon among the nobility. lord eldon and his brother lord stowell used to say that they had drunk more bad port than any two men in england. the italian opera was then the greatest attraction. it became[441] less exclusive in its arrangements when the opera house was under the management of mr. waters; but the strictest etiquette was still kept up with regard to the dress of gentlemen, who were only admitted with knee-buckles, ruffles, and chapeaux bras. if there happened to be a drawing room, the ladies as well as the gentlemen would come to the opera in their court dresses.

reproduced by andré & sleigh, ld., bushey, herts.

the "fighting téméraire" tugged to her last berth to be broken up, 1838.

from the painting by j. m. w. turner, r.a., in the national gallery.

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rotten row in 1830. (see p. 442.)

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english cookery, even in the greatest houses, had not yet been much affected by french art. the dinners were remarkably solid, hot, and stimulating. mulligatawny and turtle soups came first, then at one end of the table was uncovered the familiar salmon, and at the other the turbot surrounded by smelts. next came a saddle of mutton, or a joint of roast beef, and for the fourth course came fowls, tongue, and ham. french dishes were placed on the sideboard, but for a long time such weak culinary preparations were treated with contemptuous neglect. the boiled potato was then very popular, and vegetables generally were unaccompanied with sauce. the dessert, which was ordered from the confectioner's, was often very costly. the wines used at dinner were chiefly port, sherry, and hock. "a perpetual thirst seemed to come over people, both men and women," says captain gronow, "as soon as they had tasted their soup, as from that moment everybody was taking wine with everybody else till the close of the dinner, and such wine as produced that class of cordiality which frequently wanders into stupefaction. how this sort of eating and drinking ended was obvious from the prevalence of gout; and the necessity of every one making the pill-box a constant bedroom companion."

there was a sort of understanding in those times that hyde park was the peculiar preserve of the aristocracy. women of notoriously bad reputation would not then have dared to show themselves in rotten row, and the middle and lower classes of london did not think of intruding themselves as equestrians upon the pleasure-ground of the nobility. at that time it was every way more retired; the walks were fewer, and cows and deer were seen quietly grazing under clumps of trees. the frequenters of the park, who then congregated daily about five o'clock, were chiefly[442] composed of dandies and ladies in the best society; the former, well-mounted and dressed in a blue coat, with brass buttons, leather breeches and top-boots, with a tremendously deep, stiff, white cravat, and high shirt-collar, which rendered stooping impossible. many of the ladies used to drive round the park in a carriage, called a vis-à-vis, which held only two persons, having a hammer-cloth rich in heraldic designs, powdered footmen in smart liveries, and a coachman who assumed all the airs and importance of a wigged archbishop.

the growing importance of the middle classes, the rapid multiplication of men of wealth and high social position in the mercantile community; the marriage of their daughters into noble families rendered insolvent by extravagance, and the diffusion of knowledge among all classes of the community, gradually levelled or lowered the barriers of exclusiveness, increased the facilities of social intercourse, and rendered the fashions in the clothing of both sexes more accordant with good taste, more convenient, and more conducive to health. with the use of the trousers, and hessian or wellington boots, came the loose and easy surtout, and frock-coat; and instead of the deep stiff white cravat, black stocks or black ties were worn except in full dress at evening parties. the clergy, however, retained the white neckcloth, and, strange to say, it also became the necessary distinction of footmen, butlers, hotel-waiters, and shop-assistants. the old court dress coat, with its bag-like skirt, was abandoned by gentlemen who attended dinner parties and balls, for the "swallow-tailed" dress coat.

the style of ladies' dresses in the days of george iv. forms a striking contrast to the fashions of the present day. the ordinary walking dresses were made loosely and simply—not high to the throat, as they were afterwards, nor yet low; the waist, with utter disregard to its natural length, was portioned off by a belt coming almost immediately under the arms, from which descended a long, straight, ungraceful skirt, without any undulation or fulness whatever, reaching to the feet, but short enough to leave them visible. the sleeves were plain and close to the arms, and fastened at the wrist with a frill. the same scantiness of material was observed in the evening dresses; they wore low bodices and short sleeves, with long gloves reaching to the elbow. the trimmings varied according to the taste of the wearer, as in our own day. small flowers at the bottom of the skirt seem to have been the prevailing style. the hair was generally arranged in short curls round the face; but this was also subject to variations, of course, and some wore it plaited. the head-dress was composed of a bouquet of flowers placed on the top of the head. but the ugliest and the most uncouth part of the dress and the most irreconcilable with modern ideas of taste was the bonnet. the crown was in itself large enough for a hat of reasonable proportions; and from it, the leaf grew out, expanding round the face, in shape somewhat like a coal-scuttle, and trimmed elaborately with feathers and flowers.

towards the end of william iv.'s reign the style of ladies' dress suddenly changed. the unshapely short-waisted robe was succeeded by one of ampler dimensions, longer and fuller, with a moderate amount of crinoline—enough to give dignity and grace to the figure, but not expanding to the same absurd extent as afterwards—and long pointed stomachers. the bonnets were considerably reduced in size. the ball dresses at the beginning of the victorian reign became more like those of a later day, except that they were then made of heavy, rich materials—silk, satin, brocade, etc. the style of the sleeve varied, but one of the fashions at this time was a puffing at the shoulder, and sloping gradually down, commonly called the "leg-of-mutton sleeve." the cloaks were large and full, enveloping the whole figure, and reaching almost to the ground.