from the effect produced at rome by alexander's death, one may imagine what happened not only in the whole of italy but also in the rest of the world: for a moment europe swayed, for the column which supported the vault of the political edifice had given way, and the star with eyes of flame and rays of blood, round which all things had revolved for the last eleven years, was now extinguished, and for a moment the world, on a sudden struck motionless, remained in silence and darkness.

after the first moment of stupefaction, all who had an injury to avenge arose and hurried to the chase. sforza retook pesaro, bagloine perugia, guido and ubaldo urbino, and la rovere sinigaglia; the vitelli entered citta di castello, the appiani piombino, the orsini monte giordano and their other territories; romagna alone remained impassive and loyal, for the people, who have no concern with the quarrels of the great, provided they do not affect themselves, had never been so happy as under the government of caesar.

the colonnas were pledged to maintain a neutrality, and had been consequently restored to the possession of their castles and the cities of chiuzano, capo d'anno, frascati, rocca di papa, and nettuno, which they found in a better condition than when they had left them, as the pope had had them embellished and fortified.

caesar was still in the vatican with his troops, who, loyal to him in his misfortune, kept watch about the palace, where he was writhing on his bed of pain and roaring like a wounded lion. the cardinals, who had in their first terror fled, each his own way, instead of attending the pope's obsequies, began to assemble once more, some at the minerva, others around cardinal caraffa. frightened by the troops that caesar still had, especially since the command was entrusted to michelotto, they collected all the money they could to levy an army of 2000 soldiers with. charles taneo at their head, with the title of captain of the sacred college. it was then hoped that peace was re-established, when it was heard that prospero colonna was coming with 3000 men from the side of naples, and fabio orsino from the side of viterbo with 200 horse and more than 1000 infantry. indeed, they entered rome at only one day's interval one from another, by so similar an ardour were they inspired.

thus there were five armies in rome: caesar's army, holding the vatican and the borgo; the army of the bishop of nicastro, who had received from alexander the guardianship of the castle sant' angelo and had shut himself up there, refusing to yield; the army of the sacred college, which was stationed round about the minerva; the army of prospero colonna, which was encamped at the capitol; and the army of fabio orsino, in barracks at the ripetta.

on their side, the spaniards had advanced to terracino, and the french to nepi. the cardinals saw that rome now stood upon a mine which the least spark might cause to explode: they summoned the ambassadors of the emperor of germany, the kings of france and spain, and the republic of venice to raise their voice in the name of their masters. the ambassadors, impressed with the urgency of the situation, began by declaring the sacred college inviolable: they then ordered the orsini, the colonnas, and the duke of valentinois to leave rome and go each his own, way.

the orsini were the first to submit: the next morning their example was followed by the colonnas. no one was left but caesar, who said he was willing to go, but desired to make his conditions beforehand: the vatican was undermined, he declared, and if his demands were refused he and those who came to take him should be blown up together.

it was known that his were never empty threats they came to terms with him.

[caesar promised to remain ten miles away from rome the whole time the conclave lasted, and not to take any action against the town or any other of the ecclesiastical states: fabio orsino and. prospero colonna had made the same promises.]

[it was agreed that caesar should quit rome with his army, artillery, and baggage; and to ensure his not being attacked or molested in the streets, the sacred college should add to his numbers 400 infantry, who, in case of attack or insult, would fight for him. the venetian ambassador answered for the orsini, the spanish ambassador for the colonnas, the ambassador of france for caesar.]

at the day and hour appointed caesar sent out his artillery, which consisted of eighteen pieces of cannon, and 400 infantry of the sacred college, on each of whom he bestowed a ducat: behind the artillery came a hundred chariots escorted by his advance guard.

the duke was carried out of the gate of the vatican: he lay on a bed covered with a scarlet canopy, supported by twelve halberdiers, leaning forward on his cushions so that no one might see his face with its purple lips and bloodshot eyes: beside him was his naked sword, to show that, feeble as he was, he could use it at need: his finest charger, caparisoned in black velvet embroidered with his arms, walked beside the bed, led by a page, so that caesar could mount in case of surprise or attack: before him and behind, both right and left, marched his army, their arms in rest, but without beating of drums or blowing of trumpets: this gave a sombre, funereal air to the whole procession, which at the gate of the city met prospero colonna awaiting it with a considerable band of men.

caesar thought at first that, breaking his word as he had so often done himself, prospero colonna was going to attack him. he ordered a halt, and prepared to mount his horse; but prospera colonna, seeing the state he was in, advanced to his bedside alone: he came, against expectation, to offer him an escort, fearing an ambuscade on the part of fabio orsino, who had loudly sworn that he would lose his honour or avenge the death of paolo orsina, his father. caesar thanked colanna, and replied that from the moment that orsini stood alone he ceased to fear him. then colonna saluted the duke, and rejoined his men, directing them towards albano, while caesar took the road to citta castellana, which had remained loyal.

when there, caesar found himself not only master of his own fate but of others as well: of the twenty-two votes he owned in the sacred college twelve had remained faithful, and as the conclave was composed in all of thirty-seven cardinals, he with his twelve votes could make the majority incline to whichever side he chose. accordingly he was courted both by the spanish and the french party, each desiring the election of a pope of their own nation. caesar listened, promising nothing and refusing nothing: he gave his twelve votes to francesco piccolomini, cardinal of siena, one of his father's creatures who had remained his friend, and the latter was elected on the 8th of october and took the name of pius iii.

caesar's hopes did not deceive him: pius iii was hardly elected before he sent him a safe-conduct to rome: the duke came back with 250 men-at-arms, 250 light horse, and 800 infantry, and lodged in his palace, the soldiers camping round about.

meanwhile the orsini, pursuing their projects of vengeance against caesar, had been levying many troops at perugia and the neighbourhood to bring against him to rome, and as they fancied that france, in whose service they were engaged, was humouring the duke for the sake of the twelve votes which were wanted to secure the election of cardinal amboise at the next conclave, they went over to the service of spain.

meanwhile caesar was signing a new treaty with louis xii, by which he engaged to support him with all his forces, and even with his person, so soon as he could ride, in maintaining his conquest of naples: louis, on his side, guaranteed that he should retain possession of the states he still held, and promised his help in recovering those he had lost.

the day when this treaty was made known, gonzalvo di cordovo proclaimed to the sound of a trumpet in all the streets of rome that every spanish subject serving in a foreign army was at once to break his engagement on pain of being found guilty of high treason.

this measure robbed caesar of ten or twelve of his best officers and of nearly 300 men.

then the orsini, seeing his army thus reduced, entered rome, supported by the spanish ambassador, and summoned caesar to appear before the pope and the sacred college and give an account of his crimes.

faithful to his engagements, pius iii replied that in his quality of sovereign prince the duke in his temporal administration was quite independent and was answerable for his actions to god alone.

but as the pope felt he could not much longer support caesar against his enemies for all his goodwill, he advised him to try to join the french army, which was still advancing on naples, in the midst of which he would alone find safety. caesar resolved to retire to bracciano, where gian giordano orsino, who had once gone with him to france, and who was the only member of the family who had not declared against him, offered him an asylum in the name of cardinal dumbest: so one morning he ordered his troops to march for this town, and, taking his place in their midst, he left rome.

but though caesar had kept his intentions quiet, the orsini had been forewarned, and, taking out all the troops they had by the gate of san pancracio, they had made along detour and blocked caesar's way; so, when the latter arrived at storta, he found the orsini's army drawn up awaiting him in numbers exceeding his own by at least one-half.

caesar saw that to come to blows in his then feeble state was to rush on certain destruction; so he ordered his troops to retire, and, being a first-rate strategist, echelonned his retreat so skilfully that his enemies, though they followed, dared not attack him, and he re-entered the pontifical town without the loss of a single man.

this time caesar went straight to the vatican, to put himself more directly under the pope's protection; he distributed his soldiers about the palace, so as to guard all its exits. now the orsini, resolved to make an end of caesar, had determined to attack him wheresoever he might be, with no regard to the sanctity of the place: this they attempted, but without success, as caesar's men kept a good guard on every side, and offered a strong defence.

then the orsini, not being able to force the guard of the castle sant' angelo, hoped to succeed better with the duke by leaving rome and then returning by the torione gate; but caesar anticipated this move, and they found the gate guarded and barricaded. none the less, they pursued their design, seeking by open violence the vengeance that they had hoped to obtain by craft; and, having surprised the approaches to the gate, set fire to it: a passage gained, they made their way into the gardens of the castle, where they found caesar awaiting them at the head of his cavalry.

face to face with danger, the duke had found his old strength: and he was the first to rush upon his enemies, loudly challenging orsino in the hope of killing him should they meet; but either orsino did not hear him or dared not fight; and after an exciting contest, caesar, who was numerically two-thirds weaker than his enemy, saw his cavalry cut to pieces; and after performing miracles of personal strength and courage, was obliged to return to the vatican. there he found the pope in mortal agony: the orsini, tired of contending against the old man's word of honour pledged to the duke, had by the interposition of pandolfo petrucci, gained the ear of the pope's surgeon, who placed a poisoned plaster upon a wound in his leg.

the pope then was actually dying when caesar, covered with dust and blood, entered his room, pursued by his enemies, who knew no check till they reached the palace walls, behind which the remnant of his army still held their ground.

pius iii, who knew he was about to die, sat up in his bed, gave caesar the key of the corridor which led to the castle of sant' angelo, and an order addressed to the governor to admit him and his family, to defend him to the last extremity, and to let him go wherever he thought fit; and then fell fainting on his bed.

caesar took his two daughters by the hand, and, followed by the little dukes of sermaneta and nepi, took refuge in the last asylum open to him.

the same night the pope died: he had reigned only twenty-six days.

after his death, caesar, who had cast himself fully dressed upon his bed, heard his door open at two o'clock in the morning: not knowing what anyone might want of him at such an hour, he raised himself on one elbow and felt for the handle of his sword with his other hand; but at the first glance he recognised in his nocturnal visitor giuliano della rovere.

utterly exhausted by the poison, abandoned by his troops, fallen as he was from the height of his power, caesar, who could now do nothing for himself, could yet make a pope: giuliano delta rovere had come to buy the votes of his twelve cardinals.

caesar imposed his conditions, which were accepted.

if elected, giuliano delta ravere was to help caesar to recover his territories in romagna; caesar was to remain general of the church; and francesco maria delta rovere, prefect of rome, was to marry one of caesar's daughters.

on these conditions caesar sold his twelve cardinals to giuliano.

the next day, at giuliano's request, the sacred college ordered the orsini to leave rome for the whole time occupied by the conclave.

on the 31st of october 1503, at the first scrutiny, giuliano delta rovere was elected pope, and took the name of julius ii.

he was scarcely installed in the vatican when he made it his first care to summon caesar and give him his former rooms there; then, since the duke was fully restored to health, he began to busy himself with the re-establishment of his affairs, which had suffered sadly of late.

the defeat of his army and his own escape to sant' angelo, where he was supposed to be a prisoner, had brought about great changes in romagna. sesena was once more in the power of the church, as formerly it had been; gian sforza had again entered pesaro; ordelafi had seized forli; malatesta was laying claim to rimini; the inhabitants of imola had assassinated their governor, and the town was divided between two opinions, one that it should be put into the hands of the riani, the other, into the hands of the church; faenza had remained loyal longer than any other place; but at last, losing hope of seeing caesar recover his power, it had summoned francesco, a natural son of galeotto manfredi, the last surviving heir of this unhappy family, all whose legitimate descendants had been massacred by borgia.

it is true that the fortresses of these different places had taken no part in these revolutions, and had remained immutably faithful to the duke of valentinois.

so it was not precisely the defection of these towns, which, thanks to their fortresses, might be reconquered, that was the cause of uneasiness to caesar and julius ii, it was the difficult situation that venice had thrust upon them. venice, in the spring of the same year, had signed a treaty of peace with the turks: thus set free from her eternal enemy, she had just led her forces to the romagna, which she had always coveted: these troops had been led towards ravenna, the farthermost limit of the papal estates, and put under the command of giacopo venieri, who had failed to capture cesena, and had only failed through the courage of its inhabitants; but this check had been amply compensated by the surrender of the fortresses of val di lamane and faenza, by the capture of farlimpopoli, and the surrender of rimini, which pandolfo malatesta, its lard, exchanged for the seigniory of cittadella, in the state of padua, and far the rank of gentleman of venice.

then caesar made a proposition to julius ii: this was to make a momentary cession to the church of his own estates in romagna, so that the respect felt by the venetians for the church might save these towns from their aggressors; but, says guicciardini, julius ii, whose ambition, so natural in sovereign rulers, had not yet extinguished the remains of rectitude, refused to accept the places, afraid of exposing himself to the temptation of keeping them later on, against his promises.

but as the case was urgent, he proposed to caesar that he should leave rome, embark at ostia, and cross over to spezia, where michelotto was to meet him at the head of 100 men-at-arms and 100 light horse, the only remnant of his magnificent army, thence by land to ferrara, and from ferrara to imala, where, once arrived, he could utter his war-cry so loud that it would be heard through the length and breadth of romagna.

this advice being after caesar's own heart, he accepted it at once.

the resolution submitted to the sacred college was approved, and caesar left for ostia, accompanied by bartolommeo della rovere, nephew of his holiness.

caesar at last felt he was free, and fancied himself already on his good charger, a second time carrying war into all the places where he had formerly fought. when he reached ostia, he was met by the cardinals of sorrento and volterra, who came in the name of julius ii to ask him to give up the very same citadels which he had refused three days before: the fact was that the pope had learned in the interim that the venetians had made fresh aggressions, and recognised that the method proposed by caesar was the only one that would check them. but this time it was caesar's turn, to refuse, for he was weary of these tergiversations, and feared a trap; so he said that the surrender asked for would be useless, since by god's help he should be in romagna before eight days were past. so the cardinals of sorrento and volterra returned to rome with a refusal.

the next morning, just as caesar was setting foot on his vessel, he was arrested in the name of julius ii.

he thought at first that this was the end; he was used to this mode of action, and knew how short was the space between a prison and a tomb; the matter was all the easier in his case, because the pope, if he chose, would have plenty of pretext for making a case against him. but the heart of julius was of another kind from his; swift to anger, but open to clemency; so, when the duke came back to rome guarded, the momentary irritation his refusal had caused was already calmed, and the pope received him in his usual fashion at his palace, and with his ordinary courtesy, although from the beginning it was easy for the duke to see that he was being watched. in return for this kind reception, caesar consented to yield the fortress of cesena to the pope, as being a town which had once belonged to the church, and now should return; giving the deed, signed by caesar, to one of his captains, called pietro d'oviedo, he ordered him to take possession of the fortress in the name of the holy see. pietro obeyed, and starting at once for cesena, presented himself armed with his warrant before don diego chinon; a noble condottiere of spain, who was holding the fortress in caesar's name. but when he had read over the paper that pietro d'oviedo brought, don diego replied that as he knew his lord and master was a prisoner, it would be disgraceful in him to obey an order that had probably been wrested from him by violence, and that the bearer deserved to die for undertaking such a cowardly office. he therefore bade his soldiers seize d'oviedo and fling him down from the top of the walls: this sentence was promptly executed.

this mark of fidelity might have proved fatal to caesar: when the pope heard how his messenger had been treated, he flew into such a rage that the prisoner thought a second time that his hour was come; and in order to receive his liberty, he made the first of those new propositions to julius ii, which were drawn up in the form of a treaty and sanctioned by a bull. by these arrangements, the duke of valentinois was bound to hand over to his holiness, within the space of forty days, the fortresses of cesena and bertinoro, and authorise the surrender of forli. this arrangement was guaranteed by two bankers in rome who were to be responsible for 15,000 ducats, the sum total of the expenses which the governor pretended he had incurred in the place on the duke's account. the pope on his part engaged to send caesar to ostia under the sole guard of the cardinal of santa croce and two officers, who were to give him his full liberty on the very day when his engagements were fulfilled: should this not happen, caesar was to be taken to rome and imprisoned in the castle of sant' angelo. in fulfilment of this treaty, caesar went down the tiber as far as ostia, accompanied by the pope's treasurer and many of his servants. the cardinal of santa croce followed, and the next day joined him there.

but as caesar feared that julius ii might keep him a prisoner, in spite of his pledged word, after he had yielded up the fortresses, he asked, through the mediation of cardinals borgia and remolina, who, not feeling safe at rome, had retired to naples, for a safe-conduct to gonzalva of cordova, and for two ships to take him there; with the return of the courier the safe-conduct arrived, announcing that the ships would shortly follow.

in the midst of all this, the cardinal of santa croce, learning that by the duke's orders the governors of cesena and bertinoro had surrendered their fortresses to the captains of his holiness, relaxed his rigour, and knowing that his prisoner would some day or other be free, began to let him go out without a guard. then caesar, feeling some fear lest when he started with gonzalvo's ships the same thing might happen as on the occasion of his embarking on the pope's vessel—that is, that he might be arrested a second time—concealed himself in a house outside the town; and when night came on, mounting a wretched horse that belonged to a peasant, rode as far as nettuno, and there hired a little boat, in which he embarked for monte dragone, and thence gained naples. gonzalvo received him with such joy that caesar was deceived as to his intention, and this time believed that he was really saved. his confidence was redoubled when, opening his designs to gonzalvo, and telling him that he counted upon gaining pisa and thence going on into romagna, ganzalva allowed him to recruit as many soldiers at naples as he pleased, promising him two ships to embark with. caesar, deceived by these appearances, stopped nearly six weeks at naples, every day seeing the spanish governor and discussing his plans. but gonzalvo was only waiting to gain time to tell the king of spain that his enemy was in his hands; and caesar actually went to the castle to bid gonzalvo good-bye, thinking he was just about to start after he had embarked his men on the two ships. the spanish governor received him with his accustomed courtesy, wished him every kind of prosperity, and embraced him as he left; but at the door of the castle caesar found one of gonzalvo's captains, nuno campeja by name, who arrested him as a prisoner of ferdinand the catholic. caesar at these words heaved a deep sigh, cursing the ill luck that had made him trust the word of an enemy when he had so often broken his own.

he was at once taken to the castle, where the prison gate closed behind him, and he felt no hope that anyone would come to his aid; for the only being who was devoted to him in this world was michelotto, and he had heard that michelotto had been arrested near pisa by order of julius ii. while caesar was being taken to prison an officer came to him to deprive him of the safe-conduct given him by gonzalvo.

the day after his arrest, which occurred on the 27th of may, 1504, caesar was taken on board a ship, which at once weighed anchor and set sail for spain: during the whole voyage he had but one page to serve him, and as soon as he disembarked he was taken to the castle of medina del campo.

ten years later, gonzalvo, who at that time was himself proscribed, owned to loxa on his dying bed that now, when he was to appear in the presence of god, two things weighed cruelly on his conscience: one was his treason to ferdinand, the other his breach of faith towards caesar.