i do not think i could now arrange into a consecutive history my travellings, my goings and returnings in my wandering effort to see and comprehend the world. and certainly even if i could arrange my facts i should still be at a loss to tell of the growth of ideas that is so much more important than any facts, to trace the increasing light to its innumerable sources, to a chink here, to a glowing reflection there, to a leap of burning light from some long inert darkness close at hand. but steadily the light grew, and this vast world of man, in which our world, little son, is the world of a limited class in a small island, began to take on definite forms, to betray broad universal movements; what seemed at first chaotic, a drift and tangle of passions, traditions, foolish ideas, blundering hostilities, careless tolerances, became confusedly systematic, showed something persistent and generalized at work among its multitudinous perplexity.

i wonder now if i can put before you very briefly the main generalizations that were growing up in my mind during my exile, the simplified picture into which i translated the billions of sights and sounds and—smells, for every part of the world has its distinctive olfactory palette as much as its palette of colors—that rained daily and nightly upon my mind.

before, my eyes again as i sit here in this quiet walled french garden, the great space before the jumna musjid at delhi reappears, as i saw it in the evening stillness against a glowing sky of gold, and the memory of countless worshippers within, praying with a devotion no european displays. and then comes a memory of that long reef of staircases and temples and buildings, the ghats of benares, in the blazing morning sun, swarming with a vast multitude of multicolored people and the water also swarming with brown bodies. it has the colors of a bed of extravagantly splendid flowers and the light that is indian alone. even as i sit here these places are alive with happening. it is just past midday here; at this moment the sun sinks in the skies of india, the jumna musjid flushes again with the glow of sunset, the smoke of evening fires streams heavenward against its subtle lines, and upon those steps at benares that come down the hillside between the conquering mosque of aurangzeb and the shining mirror of the ganges a thousand silent seated figures fall into meditation. and other memories recur and struggle with one another; the crowded river-streets of canton, the rafts and houseboats and junks innumerable, riding over inky water, begin now to twinkle with a thousand lights. they are ablaze in osaka and yokohama and tokio, and the swarming staircase streets of hong kong glitter with a wicked activity now that night has come. i flash a glimpse of burmese temples, of villages in java, of the sombre purple masses of the walls of the tartar city at pekin with squat pagoda-guarded gates. how those great outlines lowered at me in the twilight, full of fresh memories and grim anticipations of baseness and violence and bloodshed! i sit here recalling it—feeling it all out beyond the trellised vine-clad wall that bounds my physical vision.... vast crowded world that i have seen! going from point to point seeking for clues, for generalities, until at last it seems to me that there emerges—something understandable.

i think i have got something understandable out of it all.

what a fantastically courageous thing is this mind of ours! my thoughts seem to me at once presumptuous and inevitable. i do not know why it is that i should dare, that any of us should dream of this attempt to comprehend. but we who think are everyone impelled to this amazing effort to get it all together into some simple generality. it is not reason but a deep-seated instinct that draws our intelligence towards explanations, that sets us perpetually seeking laws, seeking statements that will fit into infinite, incessantly interweaving complexities, and be true of them all! there is i perceive a valiant and magnificent stupidity about the human mind, a disregard of disproportion and insufficiency—like the ferret which will turn from the leveret it has seized to attack even man if he should interfere. by these desperate feats of thinking it is that our species has achieved its victories. by them it survives. by them it must stand the test of ultimate survival. some forgotten man in our ancestry—for every begetting man alive was in my individual ancestry and yours three thousand years ago—first dared to think of the world as round,—an astounding temerity. he rolled up the rivers and mountains, the forests and plains and broad horizons that stretched beyond his ken, that seemed to commonsense to go on certainly for ever, into a ball, into a little ball "like an orange." magnificent feat of the imagination, outdoing thor's deep draught of the sea! and once he had done it, all do it and no one falters at the deed. you are not yet seven as i write and already you are serenely aware that you live upon a sphere. and in much the same manner it is that we, who are sociologists and economists, publicists and philosophers and what not, are attempting now to roll up the vast world of facts which concern human intercourse, the whole indeed of history and archæology, into some similar imaginable and manageable shape, that presently everyone will be able to grasp.

i suppose there was a time when nobody bothered at all about the shape of the earth, when nobody had even had the idea that the earth could be conceived as having a shape, and similarly it is true that it is only in recent centuries that people have been able to suppose that there was a shape to human history. it is indeed not much more than a century since there was any real emergence from theological assumptions and pure romanticism and accidentalism in these matters. old adam smith it was, probing away at the roots of economics, who set going the construction of ampler propositions. from him spring all those new interpretations which have changed the writing of history from a record of dramatic reigns and wars and crises to an analysis of economic forces. how impossible it would be for anyone now to write that great chapter of gibbon's in which he sweeps together into one contempt the history of sixty emperors and six hundred years of time. his note of weariness and futility vanishes directly one's vision penetrates the immediate surface. those heraclians and isaurians and comneni were not history, a schoolboy nowadays knows that their record is not history, knows them for the mere scum upon the stream.

and still to-day we have our great interpretations to make. ours is a time of guesses, theories and provisional generalizations. our phase corresponds to the cosmography that was still a little divided between discs and domes and spheres and cosmic eggs; that was still a thousand years from measuring and weighing a planet. for a long time my mind hovered about the stimulating theories of socialism and particularly about those more systematic forms of socialist teaching that centre about karl marx. he rose quite naturally out of those early economists who saw all the world in terms of production and saving. he was a necessary step for me at least, on the way to understanding. for a time i did so shape the world in my mind that it seemed to me no more than a vast enterprise for the organization and exploitation of labor. for a time i thought human life was essentially a labor problem, that working and controlling work and lending and selling and "speculating" made the essential substance of human life, over which the forms of politics ran as the stripes of a tiger's skin run and bend over its living muscles. i followed my period in thinking that. you will find in ferrero's "roman decline," which was published early in this century, and which waits for you in the library, almost exactly the method of interpretation that was recommending itself to me in 1904 and 1905.

well, the labor problem concerns a great—substantial, shall i say?—in human society. it is only i think the basis and matter of society, not its shape and life and reality, but it had to be apprehended before i could get on to more actual things. insensibly the idea that contemporary political forms mattered very fundamentally to men, was fading out of my mind. the british empire and the german empire, the unity of italy, and anglo-saxon ascendency, the yellow peril and all the other vast phantoms of the world-politician's mythology were fading out of my mind in those years, as the olympic cosmogony must have faded from the mind of some inquiring greek philosopher in the days of heraclitus. and i revised my history altogether in the new light. the world had ceased to be chaotic in my mind; it had become a vast if as yet a quite inconclusive drama between employer and employed.

it makes a wonderful history, this history of mankind as a history of labor, as a history of the perpetual attempts of an intelligent minority to get things done by other people. it does not explain how that aggression of the minority arose nor does it give any conception of a primordial society which corresponds with our knowledge of the realities of primitive communities. one begins rather in the air with a human society that sells and barters and sustains contracts and permits land to be privately owned, and having as hastily as possible got away from that difficulty of beginnings, having ignored the large areas of the world which remain under a pacific and unprogressive agriculture to this day, the rest of the story becomes extremely convincing and illuminating. it does indeed give a sustaining explanation to a large part of recorded history, this generalization about the proclivity of able and energetic people to make other people do things. one ignores what is being done as if that mattered nothing, and concentrates upon the use and enslavement of men.

one sees that enslavement to labor progressing from crude directness to the most subtly indirect methods. the first expedient of enterprise was the sword and then the whip, and still there are remote and ugly corners of the world, in the mexican valle nazionale or in portuguese south africa, where the whip whistles still and the threat of great suffering and death follows hard upon the reluctant toiler. but the larger part of our modern slavery is past the stage of brand and whip. we have fallen into methods at once more subtle and more effective. we stand benevolently in front of our fellow man, offering, almost as if it were food and drink and shelter and love, the work we want him to do; and behind him, we are acutely aware, is necessity, sometimes quite of our making, as when we drive him to work by a hut-tax or a poll tax or a rent, that obliges him to earn money, and sometimes not so obviously of our making, sometimes so little of our making that it is easy to believe we have no power to remove it. instead of flicking the whip, we groan at last with harriet martineau at the inexorable laws of political economy that condemn us to comfort and direction, and those others to toil and hardship and indignity....

and through the consideration of these latter later aspects it was that i came at last to those subtler problems of tacit self-deception, of imperfect and unwilling apprehension, of innocently assumed advantages, of wilfully disregarded unfairness; and also to all those other problems of motive, those forgotten questions of why we make others work for us long after our personal needs are satisfied, why men aggrandize and undertake, which gradually have become in my mind the essential problems of human relationship, replacing the crude problems of labor altogether in that position, making them at last only questions of contrivance and management on the way to greater ends.

i have come to believe now that labor problems are problems merely by the way. they have played their part in a greater scheme. this phase of expropriation and enslavement, this half designed and half unconscious driving of the duller by the clever, of the pacific by the bolder, of those with weak appetites and imaginations by those with stronger appetites and imaginations, has been a necessary phase in human development. with my innate passionate desire to find the whole world purposeful, i cannot but believe that. but however necessary it has been, it is necessary no longer. strangest of saviors, there rises over the conflicts of mankind the glittering angular promise of the machine. there is no longer any need for slavery, open or disguised. we do not need slaves nor toilers nor mere laborers any more; they are no longer essential to a civilization. man has ridden on his brother man out of the need of servitude. he struggles through to a new phase, a phase of release, a phase when leisure and an unexampled freedom is possible to every human being. is possible. and it is there one halts seeing that splendid possibility of aspiration and creation before mankind—and seeing mankind for the most part still downcast, quite unaware or incredulous, following the old rounds, the grooves of ancient and superseded assumptions and subjections....

but here i will not trace in any detail the growth of my conviction that the ancient and heavy obligation to work hard and continually throughout life has already slipped from man's shoulders. suffice it that now i conceive of the task before mankind as a task essentially of rearrangement, as a problem in relationships, extremely complex and difficult indeed, but credibly solvable. during my indian and chinese journey i was still at the marxist stage. i went about the east looking at labor, watching its organization and direction, seeing great interests and enterprises replace the diffused life of an earlier phase; the disputes and discussions in the transvaal which had first opened my mind to these questions came back to me, and steadily i lost my interest in those mere political and national issues with their paraphernalia of kings and flags and governments and parties that had hitherto blinded me to these more fundamental interactions.